Within cognitive load theory, understanding is a process in which meaning is constructed by “chunking” the multiple elements that constitute high element interactivity material into a single element that is stored in long-term memory. That process does not occur for low element interactivity material to which the term “understanding” is never applied even if the material is difficult to learn due to its bulk. Based on human cognitive architecture, understanding is thus assumed to have occurred when working memory can easily process high element interactivity information as a single chunked element or a relatively small number of elements, depending on learners’ expertise. This paper discusses the integration of understanding into human cognitive architecture within a cognitive load theory framework along with educational implications suggested by cognitive load theory-based instructional designs for understanding.
Teacher burnout is associated with poorer physical and mental health among teachers and may also undermine students’ learning and development. Although personality traits are important correlates of burnout, most primary studies have examined bivariate associations without accounting for overlap among traits or relations among burnout dimensions. Using meta-analytic structural equation modeling (MASEM), we synthesized evidence on the associations between the Big Five personality traits and teacher burnout across 38 independent samples from 14 countries (N = 13,294). Burnout was modeled both dimensionally, in terms of emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (DP), and reduced personal accomplishment (rPA), and latently, using a factor representing the variance shared among these dimensions. After accounting for overlap among traits, neuroticism and extraversion showed unique associations with all three burnout dimensions and with the latent factor. Agreeableness and conscientiousness were also associated with the latent factor in the primary model but showed more differentiated associations across specific dimensions, primarily DP and rPA, whereas openness did not show significant unique associations. Overall, the findings indicate that personality traits are associated with both the shared and dimension-specific components of teacher burnout. These findings contribute to individual-difference and person–context perspectives on teacher occupational well-being.
Research on gesture-based learning suggests benefits for vocabulary acquisition, yet evidence in special education settings remains scarce. We investigated gesture-supported vocabulary instruction in 44 Dutch primary-school students attending a special education school. The study used a 2 (object manipulation words vs. abstract words) × 2 (gesture vs. no gesture) × 2 (one lesson vs. two lessons) mixed design. Gesture use was randomized at the student level, whereas lesson frequency varied quasi-experimentally because a second lesson was introduced after the first phase of data collection in response to floor performance. Learning was assessed with a 20-point composite performance test. We found a significant interaction between gesture use and lesson frequency: in the two-lesson condition, students in the gesture condition outperformed those in the no-gesture condition, whereas no difference was observed after a single lesson. Word type did not moderate this pattern. These exploratory findings indicate that, in this sample, gesture-supported vocabulary instruction may be more effective when students receive repeated practice. Because lesson frequency was not randomized and cognitive load was not directly measured, the findings should be interpreted as preliminary evidence consistent with, but not directly testing, an embodied-cognitive load account.
The classic internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model describes the effects of students’ math and verbal achievements on their math and verbal self-concepts. It assumes that social (external) comparisons (with achievements of others) are reflected in positive within-domain effects, whereas dimensional (internal) comparisons (with achievements in other domains) are reflected in negative between-domain effects. In recent decades, these assumptions have received broad empirical support. However, Wolff (2021) argued that the positive within-domain effects in the classic I/E model may also reflect dimensional comparison effects, leading to an overestimation of the impact of within-domain achievements (including social comparisons). To illustrate this argument, he proposed the difference I/E model as a reparameterization of the classic I/E model, in which self-concepts in a given domain are regressed on the difference between achievements in the same and the other domain, rather than on absolute achievement in the other domain, to draw inferences about the strength of dimensional comparison effects. To date, however, a systematic comparison of the two I/E model specifications is still lacking. In this research, we therefore compared the two I/E model specifications across six empirical studies. Overall, these studies provided evidence consistent with the assumption that the within-domain effects in the classic I/E model (but not in the difference I/E model) also reflect between-domain achievement effects (including dimensional comparison effects) and that relative achievement information is salient when students evaluate their self-concepts, thereby supporting the theoretical relevance of the difference-score parameterization. Implications for prior and future I/E model research are discussed.
This article contributes to a growing convergence across educational psychology, the learning sciences, and culturally responsive education by further redefining motivation as an interactional and socially situated phenomenon. We review and extend ongoing efforts to challenge mainstream models that characterize motivation primarily in terms of individual-level psychological constructs and processes. We instead argue that motivation arises through social engagement in meaningful disciplinary activities shaped by power, identity, and community. Central to this redefinition are two innovative frameworks from Randi Engle (1967—2012): productive disciplinary engagement and expansive framing. The paper synthesizes these frameworks with critical and sociocultural theories to develop a design-based approach to engagement and motivation that highlights accountability, authorship, and intercontextuality. We examine two programs of design-based research—one focused on online instruction and assessment and the other on first-year college writing seminars—to demonstrate how Engle’s design principles might motivate equitable engagement and a lasting sense of belonging, especially for students with minoritized identities. The motivational implications of this approach are connected to mainstream motivation theories (i.e., social cognitive, self-determination, expectancy-value, and achievement goal theories), showing how Engle’s design principles align with established motivational constructs. We argue for a new approach to engagement and motivation that embeds psychological approaches into situative approaches, supports culturally sustaining pedagogy, and adopts more participatory research methods. We conclude by proposing a methodological and theoretical synthesis to inform future research on motivation and equitable instructional practices.
