Abstract This meta-analysis examines emotional Stroop interference in bilinguals, a literature characterised with inconsistent findings on age of acquisition (AoA), emotional valence, and L2 proficiency. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic search across six electronic databases identified 10 studies (12 independent effect sizes, N = 450). Random-effects meta-analysis yielded a non-significant pooled effect characterized by extreme heterogeneity. Mixed-effects moderator models identified age of L2 acquisition as the critical boundary condition: early-acquired bilinguals exhibited reliable interference, whereas late-acquired bilinguals did not. Proficiency assessment method and valence eligibility were non-significant, suggesting that superficial methodological differences do not account for the literature’s variability. Formal stimulus-type analysis was precluded by a near-absence of emotion-label studies. These findings indicate that emotional Stroop interference in bilinguals is conditional on neurodevelopmental timing, supporting neurodevelopmental models of integrated language–emotion networks. The results underscore the need for standardised paradigms and more diverse bilingual samples in future primary research.
Abstract Whether and how second-language (L2) proficiency shapes cognitive control remain debated. We examined its influence on interference suppression across verbal and spatial domains in 154 Chinese–English bilinguals who completed parallel verbal and spatial Stroop tasks. L2 proficiency was modeled in three groups and continuously, and latent processes were decomposed via hierarchical Bayesian drift-diffusion modeling. Higher proficiency was associated with reduced interference in both domains, with a greater reduction in the verbal domain. Group-based model comparison favored verbal drift-rate variation and spatial decision-threshold variation. Joint regressions included proficiency, daily L2 use, L2 exposure, age of acquisition and years of learning. Proficiency was associated with higher drift rates and thresholds and shorter nondecision times in both tasks. Daily L2 use and L2 exposure were associated with verbal and spatial parameters, respectively. These findings provide computational evidence for a task-dependent account of bilingual cognitive control involving proficiency and other experience dimensions.
Abstract This study investigates how L1–L2 typological distance moderates the predictive validity of large language model (LLM)-based metrics in L2 reading, alongside the compensatory role of cognitive resources. Eye-tracking data from Chinese learners with L1 Lao, Burmese, Thai and Vietnamese revealed that surprisal predicted processing difficulty across all groups, whereas contextual entropy effects were group-specific and qualified by cognitive differences. Cognitive abilities explained unique variance only in Vietnamese learners, with verbal short‑term storage (VSTS) showing an independent effect. Additionally, VSTS and reading comprehension accuracy showed significant interactions with typological distance, such that higher learner-level memory and comprehension-performance indices were associated with reduced processing burden under greater L1–L2 divergence. These findings demonstrate that LLM metrics’ validity is constrained by typology and modulated by cognitive resources, supporting adaptive L2 processing models and the Cognitive Resource Coordination Model (Robinson [2001, Second Language Research 17(4), pp. 368–392]).
Abstract How bilingualism impacts the brain networks that support language and cognitive control in childhood is largely unknown. Here we used diffusion-weighted and resting-state functional MRI to assess structural and functional connectivity in 36 English–Greek bilinguals and 17 English monolinguals aged 8 to 10 years. We examined language networks (arcuate and inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus microstructure; fronto-temporal functional connectivity) as well as domain-general networks involved in attention and cognitive control (superior longitudinal fasciculus microstructure; default mode network; salience network; fronto-parietal control network; striatal network functional connectivity). In the bilingual group, greater bilingual engagement was associated with enhanced default-mode and fronto-parietal functional connectivity. Earlier bilingual exposure was associated with higher superior longitudinal fasciculus microstructure. There were no associations between bilingual experience measures and language network metrics. Overall, we reveal that immersive bilingualism leaves neural signatures in the developing brain, mainly by shaping the intrinsic connectivity of domain-general networks.
