The spectacled cormorant, Pallas cormorant (Urile perspicillatus (Suliformes: Phalacrocoracidae)), played an important role as a source of animal protein for sailors, fur traders, and the permanent population of the Commander Islands, Russia. This endemic bird species was hunted to extinction due to human activity in the mid-19th century. Currently, there is no published genetic information available about the spectacled cormorant, and its phylogenetic relationships are primarily based on morphological traits. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by presenting two complete mitochondrial genomes from two historical specimens of this extinct species, dating back to 1510 − 1220 cal BP and 500 − 230 cal BP years, respectively. We sequenced the ancient DNA of the extinct spectacled cormorant from Bering Island in order to reconstruct its complete mitochondrial genome and determine its phylogenetic position among other extant species in the Phalacrocoracidae family. The mtDNA of the spectacled cormorant was assembled and annotated, revealing that its mitogenome is 16,895 base pairs long. It contains 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and 22 transfer RNA genes, with an overall base composition of 32.3
Seed dispersal shapes species composition, regeneration, and long-term resilience of dry Afromontane forests. In Ethiopia, there is limited information on how woody species disperse and recruit. Biyo Forest, a protected exclosure in central Ethiopia, offers an opportunity to study how different dispersal methods shape forest structure and inform conservation efforts. This study looked at the types of woody species present, their population structure, regeneration status, and how they are dispersed to better understand what supports forest sustainability. Woody species were surveyed along seven transects, using 28 plots measuring 20 × 20 m, with nested 2 × 2 m subplots. GPS randomization made sure the transects were placed without bias. Plants were grouped as seedlings, saplings, or mature based on their height and diameter. Importance Value Index (IVI), Shannon diversity, basal area dominance (RDO), regeneration ratios, and species dominance were computed. Dispersal syndromes were assigned using fruit and seed features and regional plant guides. Statistical analyses were performed using ANOVA, Kruskal–Wallis, correlations, regression, and PCA to explore links between dispersal types, IVI, and regeneration. 27 woody species from 15 families were recorded, with Fabaceae dominating. Species diversity was moderate (H′ = 2.84). Endozoochory was the dominant dispersal mode (48.15
A systematic analysis of the floristic characteristics of vascular plants in Nanniwan Wetland Park was conducted, aiming to provide reliable scientific support for the implementation of conservation measures and the sustainable development and utilization of plant resources in the region. By integrating field surveys and literature review, the species composition and floristic geographical elements of vascular plants in the study area were systematically quantified and analyzed. Furthermore, comparisons were made between Nanniwan Wetland Park and the floras of four mountains along the Ordos Platform boundary, as well as Ziwuling, based on two dimensions: species density and floristic similarity. (1) The vascular flora of Nanniwan Wetland Park comprises 475 species belonging to 286 genera and 85 families. Dicotyledons form the main component of the flora. Families and genera are predominantly monotypic and oligotypic. Ten dominant families were identified, all of which are cosmopolitan in distribution. (2) At the family level, the flora is predominantly cosmopolitan with tropical affinities; at the genus level, temperate distribution types dominate. (3) The study area harbors two nationally second-class protected wild plant species in China, one vulnerable (VU) species, and five near-threatened (NT) species. (4) Comparative analysis with other floras revealed that the study area exhibits the highest species density (198.67 km⁻²). Its floristic similarity coefficient was highest with Yunqiu Mountain. Nanniwan Wetland Park demonstrates a relatively high level of biodiversity. Its floristic composition is characterized by diverse geographical elements and a relatively rich resource of rare and endangered plant species.
This study models the current and future habitat suitability of four narrow-range endemic succulents of Saudi Arabia Aloe armatissima Lavranos Collen., Aloe shadensis Lavranos Collen., Euphorbia saudiarabica Fayed Al-Zahrani, and Euphorbia taifensis Fayed Al-Zahrani. Endemic plant species confined to mountain refugia are especially vulnerable to the warming and increased aridity projected across the Arabian Peninsula, yet quantitative, spatially explicit assessments of their habitat suitability under future climate scenarios remain scarce for Saudi Arabia. There is currently limited information on the suitability of endemic plant habitats in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Occurrence records derived from field surveys and literature were combined with WorldClim climate variables and elevation-based terrain layers, and maximum entropy (MaxEnt) species distribution models were projected under CMIP6 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6) SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios for mid- and late-century periods. Habitat suitability patterns revealed strong spatial restriction of all species to the southwestern escarpment, particularly across Jizan, Asir, Al Baha, and southern Makkah. Models achieved high discriminatory performance for all four species (mean training AUC 0.998–1.000; testing AUC 0.914–0.999, lowest for E. saudiarabica) and identified current suitable habitat covering between 0.58
In 2026, researchers around the world participated in a joint image competition hosted by BMC Ecology and Evolution and BMC Zoology. Their photographs highlight the beauty and diversity of nature, showcasing the remarkable efforts of scientists to understand and protect it. This Editorial presents the winning images, selected by the Editor and senior members of the journals’ Editorial boards.
The freshwater snail genus Acrorbis comprises minute rheophilic gastropods endemic to waterfalls and splash zones of the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest in South America. Despite its distinctive morphology and long-standing taxonomic instability, its phylogenetic position has never been explicitly tested using molecular data. Acrorbis is currently classified within Helisomatini (Planorbidae: Planorbinae), although previous anatomical interpretations suggested alternative affinities. Here, we assembled and characterised the first complete mitochondrial genome of Acrorbis petricola and integrated mitogenomic and nuclear datasets to reassess the evolutionary placement of this enigmatic lineage and explore implications for planorbid systematics. The mitochondrial genome of A. petricola was 13,617 bp long and contained the typical set of 37 genes, with strong AT bias, multiple short overlaps, seven intergenic spacers, and candidate regulatory regions associated with strand-switch boundaries. Comparative analyses of available hygrophilan mitogenomes identified 15 distinct mitochondrial gene orders, revealing substantial structural conservatism within some clades and lineage-specific rearrangements in others. Acrorbis exhibited a unique derived gene order not detected in any other sampled taxon. Phylogenetic analyses based on mitochondrial datasets, concatenated nuclear 18S rRNA plus mitochondrial cox1 sequences, nuclear 28S rRNA, and combined mitogenomic and nuclear rRNA datasets consistently rejected the current placement of Acrorbis within Helisomatini. Instead, all analyses recovered Acrorbis outside Helisomatini, variously as sister to Ancylinae, Bulinidae, the remaining Planorbidae sensu lato (excluding Burnupiidae), or within a Neotropical clade including Drepanotrema and Antillorbis, depending on dataset composition. Our study provides the first genomic evidence for reassessing the systematic position of Acrorbis and demonstrates that its current tribal assignment is unsupported. Phylogenetic analyses consistently indicate that Acrorbis represents a distinct evolutionary lineage within Planorbidae sensu lato, while its mitochondrial architecture documents a distinctive history of structural evolution. These findings are consistent with the historical recognition of Acrorbis as a distinct tribal lineage (Acrorbini) and support renewed evaluation of suprageneric classification within Planorbidae, particularly the status of historical family-group names associated with the genus. More broadly, this study underscores the value of integrating genomic structure and multilocus phylogenetics to resolve problematic freshwater gastropod classifications.
Abstract Arid and semi-arid ecosystems are highly sensitive to climate warming and drying, yet community-level responses in the Middle East remain poorly quantified. This study assesses the potential impacts of climate change on plant community distributions in the Zayandeh-Rud basin, central Iran, and evaluates whether woody plant encroachment follows global patterns. Species distribution models were applied to project current and future (2050 and 2070) distributions of major vegetation communities, including Semi Steppe–Shrub, Semi Steppe–Perennial Herbaceous, Alpine Vegetation, Semi Desert–Salty Plants, Semi Desert–Shrub, Semi Steppe–Semi Shrub, and Steppe–Semi Shrub, under three climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5). Annual precipitation (Bio12) was identified as the primary driver shaping Semi Steppe–Shrub, Semi Steppe–Perennial Herbaceous, Semi Steppe–Semi Shrub, and Steppe–Semi Shrub communities, whereas maximum temperature of the warmest month (Bio5) and slope were influential predictors for Alpine Vegetation and semi-desert communities. In the study area, the mean (± SD) of GCMs and SSPs for the net change percentage of total woody plant communities (including Semi Steppe–Shrub, Semi Steppe–Semi Shrub, Steppe–Semi Shrub, and Semi Desert–Shrub) during the period 2050 to 2070 (over the next 60 years) was estimated at 26.86 ± 12.05%. The annual expansion rate of these woody communities was estimated at 0.45 ± 0.20%. These patterns suggest a potential trend of woody plant encroachment that may be associated with increasing temperatures and declining precipitation. Such structural changes may lead to increased dominance of woody species, shifts in community composition, biotic homogenization, and potential impacts on ecosystem functions, including carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, soil stability, and biodiversity conservation.
Urbanization exposes plants to multiple environmental stressors, including landscape-level changes in land-cover composition (domination of impervious surfaces, reduced proportion of green areas and water bodies), elevated temperatures associated with the Urban Heat Island effect, and altered water availability. These factors can alter nectar production and quality, with potential consequences for plant–pollinator interactions and the stability of ecosystem services in urban environments. However, the relative importance of different components of urban environmental variation — including landscape composition, temperature, and conditions experienced at the plant level — remains poorly understood. We quantified nectar volume and sugar concentration in 800 flowers and analyzed their relationships with floral morphology, flower position within inflorescences, air temperature, and the proportion of impervious surfaces, green areas, and water bodies (within radii: 150, 600, and 1000 m). Coarse urbanization metrics did not explain variation in nectar traits, highlighting limited predictive power of land-cover structure for floral reward dynamics in urban ecosystems. Neither impervious surfaces nor green area cover significantly influenced nectar volume or sugar concentration at any spatial scale. Instead, nectar production was better explained by local thermal conditions, proportion of water bodies cover, and floral morphology. Nectar volume increased with air temperature and with the proportion of water bodies within 600 m, while sugar concentration showed a marginal positive association with water bodies at the 1000 m scale and tended to decrease under warmer conditions. Larger flowers produced greater nectar rewards, and flower position within the inflorescence significantly affected both nectar volume and concentration. Our results suggest that nectar production in urban E. vulgare populations is influenced more strongly by local thermal conditions, proportion of water bodies cover, and floral traits than by broad land-cover composition, indicating that fine-scale environmental heterogeneity and specific landscape elements may play a key role in maintaining floral rewards for pollinators in urban ecosystems.
Climate change represents a primary threat to global biodiversity, particularly impacting species with restricted distributions and specialized ecological requirements. Iran, recognized as a center of diversity for the genus Salvia with approximately 70 species and a high rate of endemism, faces considerable conservation challenges. These endemic species, often confined to specific regions and environmental conditions, are highly vulnerable to habitat shifts and fragmentation driven by climate change. Climate change can also disrupt plant-pollinator interactions and change range overlap, thereby compounding the vulnerability of plant species. Estimating future range shifts and vulnerability enables more effective prioritization of conservation strategies. We performed Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM) for five endemic Iranian Salvia species (S. aristata, S. sahendica, S. hypoleuca, S. eremophila, and S. majdae) and Apis mellifera meda (Iranian honeybee), as one of their putative pollinators, to assess the potential impact of climate change on their distribution patterns. We used maximum entropy (MaxEnt) approaches to predict the potential geographic distribution of the studied species. The current model was projected under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) from 2041 to 2060 using three General Circulation Models (GCMs). In addition, we evaluated the niche overlap of studied species and Apis mellifera meda for current (1970–2000) and future (2041–2060) models. Among environmental variables, Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter of a year (Bio11) along with annual mean temperature (Bio1) were the most important contributing variable for the studied Salvia species. Future climate projections indicate an expansion of potential suitable habitat for S. eremophila, S. hypoleuca, and S. majdae, whereas a contraction is predicted for S. sahendica and S. aristata. The current niche overlap of Apis mellifera meda and all the studied species ranged from 0.18 for S. sahendica to 0.71 for S. aristata. Under both scenarios, niche overlap decreases for S. aristata while it increases for other species under SSP2-4.5 and remains relatively stable under SSP5-8.5. Projection models indicated increase in niche breadth for the studied Salvia species under future climate scenarios except for S. aristata under SSP5-8.5. The niche breadth for Apis mellifera meda is projected to remain stable but its potentially suitable area will decrease by 2041–2060. The vulnerability of the studied species to climate change is not uniform, highlighting the need for species-specific conservation strategies. Our results identified S. sahendica and S. aristata as highly vulnerable to climate changes, warranting their prioritization in conservation programs.
A range of floral traits across four geographically separate species-rich communities of the dwarf succulent Conophytum N.E. Br. (Aizoaceae), a highly threatened genus in South Africa, have been examined. In each community, individual species can be both partitioned and grouped on the basis of phylogenetic relatedness, floral characteristics, anthesis and phenology. Differences in the seasonality of flowering are relatively uncommon, while differences in anthesis are prevalent across the genus and a feature of each community. Within both nocturnal and diurnal flowering species, variation in floral structure, colour or pollen structure serve to separate the majority of species. Together, this suggests that separation of pollination systems is a key factor in maintaining community structure and species diversity. Given the high threat status of many species in the genus, species-rich patches could present an opportunity for future conservation strategies, where these complex communities rather than individual species are prioritised for conservation to preserve genetic and species diversity.
Predation pressure shapes ecosystems via selection on locomotor form and function. To explore this link, we grouped 48 species of predatory mammals into five hunting-strategy clusters: Anteaters, Opportunistic Grapplers, Large Grapplers, Opportunistic Pouncers, and Social Hunters, and asked whether their locomotor shape (limb posture through the stride) reliably distinguished these clusters. We digitised 115 side-view stride sequences across these species, performed Procrustes alignment and principal component analysis on per-stride shapes, and analysed symmetrical (walking) and asymmetrical (galloping/bounding) gaits. In symmetrical gaits, phylogeny accounted for the largest share of locomotor variation, but hunting strategy still explained a significant portion, whereas gait type made only a weak contribution and body mass was not significant. These slower, more economical gaits showed relatively broad overlap among hunting groups, although Social Hunters tended to use more upright limb postures and Grappling species more crouched and extended forelimb configurations. In asymmetrical gaits, differences among hunting strategies were stronger, while gait type and body mass again contributed little. Social Hunters showed larger limb and spinal excursions, whereas Opportunistic Pouncers occupied a more restricted region of locomotor space. The stronger separation among hunting groups during asymmetrical gaits suggests that ecological specialization is expressed most clearly in high-performance behaviours such as acceleration, manoeuvring, and prey capture, rather than in economical walking. We then placed the extinct marsupial predator, the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), within this framework using archival footage of walking. Its symmetrical-gait centroid was predominantly associated to Opportunistic Pouncer across classifiers. These results show that locomotor biomechanics are associated with hunting ecology, but that these ecological patterns are embedded within substantial phylogenetic structure; they also suggest that this relationship may help inform ecological inference in extinct species.
Despite its contribution to multiple ecosystem goods and services, maple tree species distribution, survival, and growth are declining due to multiple interconnected threats. Therefore, inclusive understanding of distributions, threats, and silvicultural management is essential for their sustainability. Currently, there is a lack of a comprehensive review for these species that would facilitate effective management and utilization. Thus, this review aims to synthesize the distribution, major threats, and management methods of maple trees species in temperate regions. The study employed PRISMA methods, incorporating a total of 115 original studies for systematic review and meta-analyses. The mean effect size of the included studies for major threats was positive moderate range (SMD = 0.46) and for sustainable forest management (SMD = 0.44) with an acceptable level of heterogeneity (I² = 7 to 28
Abstract The current status of Unio crassus populations in the watercourses of the right-bank Ukraine was studied. Of 191 localities surveyed, the species was found at 30, across four river basins: the Danube, Dniester and Southern Bug basins and the Prypiat sub-basin. Co-occurrence of U. crassus with other Unionidae was analysed using the Jaccard and Sørensen–Dice indices; the highest values were found with U. pictorum ( $$K_J$$ = 0.59) and U. tumidus ( $$K_J$$ = 0.52), indicating similar habitat requirements. Comparative assessment of the combined demographic and morphometric indicators distinguished three population groups. The populations of the Ubort (Sushchany) and Stalineshti (Mamalyha) rivers showed the most favourable demographic and morphometric indicators and are regarded as candidate donor populations for species recovery. Morphometric analysis revealed variability in shell size, with the largest shells in the Stalineshti River population (mean shell length $$68.86 \pm 2.52$$ mm). A comparison of the Prypiat sub-basin between 2007 and 2011 and 2020–2024 indicated an overall decline in occurrence (from 40.6% to 20.0% of sites; Fisher’s exact test, $$p=0.071$$ ), including loss of detections in the Noryn River and a reduction in the Ubort River; small, uneven samples and differences in survey effort mean these trends should be interpreted with caution. The results can inform the planning of protected areas, particularly Emerald Network sites, the development of species management plans, and the adaptation of European U. crassus conservation experience to Ukraine.
Understanding how fruit fly species partition resources along environmental gradients is important for predicting pest pressure under changing climate conditions. The population ecology of Dacus bivittatus (Bigot) and Dacus punctatifrons (Karsch) (Diptera: Tephritidae) were examined across six sites spanning 526–1,650 m above sea level in the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania, over eight years (2004–2012). A total of 9,379 specimens of the two focal-species were collected, including 4,552 D. bivittatus and 4,827 D. punctatifrons. These were aggregated into 292 site-month observations and standardised as flies per trap per day (FTD). Dacus bivittatus showed strong seasonal structuring (H = 43.03, p < 0.001), with abundance peaking during the cool dry season (June–August), whereas D. punctatifrons showed no clear seasonal pattern. Both species declined significantly with increasing altitude (ρ = −0.308 and − 0.769, respectively; p < 0.001), but the decline was steeper for D. punctatifrons. Species dominance shifted across the gradient: D. punctatifrons dominated warm lowland conditions (> 24 °C), whereas D. bivittatus prevailed at elevations above approximately 569 m. Seasonal niche overlap declined markedly with altitude, indicating increasing temporal segregation between the species in cooler environments. These findings demonstrate that altitude structures and ecological divergence between two closely related fruit fly pests provide a basis for site-specific monitoring and climate-sensitive pest forecasting in tropical mountain agroecosystems.
Diet is the most important axis of niche differentiation in ungulates and mediates coexistence, habitat requirements. Himalaya amplify dietary dynamics because seasonal snow cover and plant phenology decreases resource availability. In this study fecal DNA metabarcoding was used to quantify diet and the dietary niche separation among five sympatric wild ungulates Hangul (Cervus hanglu hanglu), Kashmir markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis), Kashmir musk deer (Moschus cupreus), Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus goral), and Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica). Fresh fecal samples were collected throughout the Kashmir Valley, western Himalaya across the elevational and habitat gradients. We amplified two plant barcodes (chloroplast rbcL and nuclear ITS2) and sequenced the amplicons using Oxford Nanopore. Diets were analyzed by relative read abundance, functional traits, dietary diversity, niche breadth, and interspecific overlap. Across the seasonal diet profiles, we detected 208 plant species from 174,871 assigned reads. Hangul summer diet exhibits the broadest diet among species (richness = 115 taxa, H′ = 4.48, Levins’ B = 64.7) with a diffuse core of many co-dominant taxa, indicating generalist mixed feeding during peak plant productivity. Musk deer during autumn showed the narrowest diet (richness = 50, B = 14.3), indicating strong seasonal concentration on a smaller set of plants. Pairwise dietary overlap (Pianka’s O) ranged from 0.136 to 0.985, showing both convergence and partitioning among the ungulate species. The results are consistent with a landscape-level coexistence model in which sympatric Kashmir ungulates share a broad forage base but segregate through differences in functional feeding (grazing vs. browsing tendencies), dominance structure, and seasonal shift. The study used composite species-season templates, the results are interpreted as landscape level diet profiles rather than individual or population level variance estimates.
Global warming and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events threaten organisms worldwide, with cold-adapted species like bumblebees being especially vulnerable. Although heat stress has been shown to affect bumblebee physiology and behaviour, whether it also impacts their epigenome remains unknown. In this study, we addressed this gap by investigating the short- and long-term effects of acute heat stress experienced early in adult life on DNA methylation profiles in the buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). The DNA methylomes of males exposed either to control conditions (25°C) or to acute heat stress (42 °C for 60 min) were sequenced 1 day and 15 days after exposure to disentangle the short- and long-term effects of thermal stress. Heat stress induced differential methylation at hundreds to thousands of sites in both the short- and long-term, yet these signatures were largely distinct across time points. Accordingly, random forest classification failed to identify a persistent long-term DNA methylation signature of heat stress, indicating that heat-induced DNA methylation patterns change over time. Similarly, epigenetic clock analyses revealed that epigenetic age was transiently increased in the short-term, but not in the long-term. By uncovering the temporal dynamics of DNA methylation profiles following heat stress inB. terrestrismales, our findings suggest that DNA methylation is actively regulated rather than passively maintaining environmentally induced alterations. These results shed new light on how environmental signals may dynamically shape the insect epigenome.
Bird species classification is a critical task in ecological research and conservation, enabling accurate monitoring of biodiversity and environmental health. This study evaluates seven advanced vision transformer models and five contemporary convolutional neural networks (CNN)-based models that were analysed using BIRDS-525 dataset of around 90,000 images of 525 distinct avian classes. The models are assessed based on accuracy, F1-score, and inference time. Vision Transformers, particularly MambaVision and ViT enhanced through fine-tuning, demonstrated superior accuracy and efficiency, with MambaVision achieving the highest nominal test accuracy of 99.47
Mammals native to hypoxic niches thrive in hypoxic environments, unlike humans and non-adapted species which suffer metabolic dysfunction and disease. Despite progress in understanding hypoxic signaling, the evolutionary strategies enabling niche-specific hypoxia adaptation remain unclear. To address this, we analyzed 21 species representing three hypoxic niches (aquatic deep-diving, terrestrial high-altitude, terrestrial burrowing) and non-hypoxic controls based on identified 25 HIF1A pathway-related core genes. In the coding region, selection pressure analysis initially identified key genes: aquatic deep-diving: CREBBP; terrestrial high-altitude: EGLN1, EGLN2, ELOC and TP53; terrestrial burrowing: EGLN3. Convergent amino acid substitution analysis at the protein level validated these findings and further refined the selection to the most representative key genes for each niche (aquatic deep-diving: CREBBP; terrestrial high-altitude: EGLN1; terrestrial burrowing: EGLN3). Subsequently, non-coding region analysis revealed the specific regulatory patterns of the key genes across the three hypoxic niches: aquatic deep-diving corresponds to acute transient hypoxia adaptation, terrestrial high-altitude exhibits chronic fluctuating hypoxia adaptation, and terrestrial burrowing demonstrates long-term stable hypoxia adaptation. In addition, hypoxia adaptation analysis of the solid tumor in several cancers showed that domain mutations in the core gene CREBBP in the HIF1A signaling pathway contribute to the malignant behavior of cancers. This indicates that distinct hypoxic niches and their key genes have evolved unique regulatory mechanisms for adaptation. The study suggests mammals exploit diverse strategies by modulating key HIF1A pathway gene expression, providing novel insights into hypoxic signaling in evolutionary adaptation to oxygen deprivation.
Human–carnivore conflict (HWC) is an increasing conservation and livelihood challenge worldwide, particularly in rural areas where communities depend heavily on livestock and natural resources. Livestock depredation by large carnivores causes significant economic losses and often leads to negative attitudes toward wildlife conservation. In Africa, population growth, agricultural expansion, and habitat fragmentation have intensified interactions between humans and carnivores, increasing the risk of livestock predation. Factors such as seasonal movements, livestock management practices, and proximity to protected areas are known to influence the occurrence of conflict. However, evidence on how livelihood strategies and seasonal dynamics affect human–carnivore conflict in the Omo Valley of Southern Ethiopia remains limited, underscoring the need for context-specific studies to support effective coexistence strategies. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in the Omo Valley, Southern Ethiopia, from October to December 2023. A total of 147 households were selected from villages adjacent to Omo National Park and the Tama Community Conservation Area using purposive and convenience sampling techniques. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a pretested structured interviewer-administered questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were used to identify factors associated with livestock depredation, and variables with p < 0.05 in the multivariable model were considered statistically significant. Overall, 36.1
