Physiological regulation is extremely complex and cannot be described by homeostasis, the mathematical model generally used in medical science. Homeostasis is based on assumptions which have never been tested or substantiated and when simulated appears not to be consistent with the real behavior of physiological regulation. As a consequence, drugs and drug treatments are developed on a trial and error basis, without a functional model guiding the process. This paper evaluates a mathematical model published previously which much better corresponds to the complex behavior of regulated physiological processes. The compensatory response - the reaction of the body's defense mechanism to disturbances - is shown to be a major factor in the effects of drugs. Its magnitude at any moment is argued not to be determined by the actual drug dose, but by the dose the organism expects. Model simulations show the compensatory response to be the primary factor in curing diseases while it can be isolated from the drug effect to cure without the side effects characteristic of drugs. If instead of homeostasis a better functioning model had enabled a real understanding of the body's defense mechanism, the compensatory response could have been a powerful tool of modern medicine.
Nervous and neurodegenerative diseases are considered one of the most common groups among humanity, and the number of these diseases in the population is constantly increasing. At the same time, the prevalence of gastrointestinal and digestive system pathologies is also steadily growing. The literature contains numerous data on the relationship between the nervous system and the digestive system through a bidirectional microbiota-gut-brain axis, as well as connections via the circulatory and immune systems, among others. This work attempts to compile existing literature on this topic, summarize it, identify common patterns, and assess how strongly the gut can influence the course of various CNS disorders. It also aims to identify specific strains that may impact certain disorders and pathologies. Additionally, an effort was made to understand the mechanisms by which the microbiota affects the brain.
Quantum mechanics has revolutionized computational drug discovery by addressing fundamental limitations of classical approaches. Its significance lies in accurately modeling electronic phenomena crucial for drug-target interactions, including polarization, charge transfer, and covalent reactivity, which classical force fields inadequately represent. This comprehensive review examines quantum mechanical methods in pharmaceutical applications from 2020 to 2025. The literature search methodology employed PubMed, Web of Science, and arXiv databases (January 2020-January 2025), focusing on improvements in density functional theory, QM/MM implementations, machine-learned force fields, and alchemical free energy protocols. We critically evaluate 156 primary research articles and 42 review papers, analyzing performance metrics from community benchmarking studies, including SAMPL, GMTKN55, and pharmaceutical consortia datasets. The review encompasses methodological advances, practical applications, and regulatory considerations for quantum-enhanced drug discovery. Quantum mechanical enhancements provide substantial benefits for specific challenging cases rather than universal improvements across all drug discovery applications. Current methodological innovations have significantly improved computational tractability while maintaining chemical accuracy. A critical evaluation of cost-benefit trade-offs reveals that targeted applications to metal-containing systems, covalent modifications, and polarization-dominated interactions yield the highest return on computational investment. Best practices for reproducible implementation and practical method selection guidelines are crucial for the successful integration of a pharmaceutical pipeline.
Behavioral ecology of fungi is an emerging field investigating how fungi respond to environmental stimuli through morphological and physiological changes. Progress requires methodologies suited to fungal biology. Here, we developed an experimental approach to test for memory in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor. We hypothesized that mycelium exposed to pea cotyledons would retain directional information about the nutrient source. To test this, a portion of the mycelium was transferred to fresh medium, where memory would be assessed by asymmetrical growth toward the former nutrient position. The hypothesis was not supported, but the methods offer a framework for exploring fungal behavior in both ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic species. Although no evidence of memory was found, this study highlights the value of publishing both positive and negative results and provides tools to advance research on fungal cognition and behavior.
Microtubules are nanoscale spintronic oscillators with memristive properties. Spintronic and memristive effects, together with some unique conditions found in the axon initial segment (AIS), allow quantum coherence to emerge spontaneously in a population of microtubules located within the AIS. According to the QBIT theory, the spontaneous emergence of coherence in a population of microtubules is the necessary and sufficient condition for the generation of a micro-consciousness (a quale) by the brain. Simultaneous generation of multiple qualia by synchronized activity in different parts of the cerebral cortex gives rise to the appearance of a macro-consciousness: a seemingly unified subjective experience.
