Forests play a crucial role in carbon sequestration and storage, yet uncertainty remains about carbon stocks and sequestration differences between managed and unmanaged forests, which has resulted in considerable scientific and policy debate. This review synthesizes European evidence comparing managed and unmanaged forests addressing three questions: (1) what are the differences in carbon stock and sequestration for all carbon pools between managed and unmanaged forests, (2) what are trade-offs and synergies with other ecosystem services when managing for carbon, and (3) what are limitations of forest management research in identifying trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services? This review shows that unmanaged forests are important for long-term carbon storage, containing 34
Forest ecosystems are increasingly threatened by a dynamic array of fungal, oomycete, nematode, and viral pathogens. Accelerating climate change, globalized trade, and the expansion of intensively managed plantations are simultaneously broadening pathogen ranges and exposing naïve host populations, yet a comprehensive cross-kingdom synthesis of these threats has been lacking. This systematic review synthesizes the state of knowledge on forest pathogen biology, epidemiology, diagnostics, and management for the 2018–2026 period, identifying research and policy priorities to safeguard global forest health. A systematic review conforming to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, synthesizing 142 peer-reviewed articles and assessing for methodological quality using the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool, reveals that while fungal pathogens (n = 80; 56.3
Forest roads are vital for the relocation of wood harvesting machinery, secondary transportation, forest management, fire prevention, and recreational activities. Monitoring and maintaining the condition of a large and spatially distributed road network requires resource-efficient methods and new expertise. This review examines methods for measuring and predicting the condition and trafficability of unpaved forest roads, based on 87 publications from 2010 to 2025. The aim was to examine evaluated road features and the methods used to measure them. Forest road condition is commonly evaluated by structural strength, surface quality, geometry, and drainage. Traditional techniques (e.g., bearing capacity measurements and visual inspections) are the most frequently used. Mobile mapping approaches and remote sensing methods, which include airborne laser scanning, unmanned aerial vehicle surveys, and satellite‑based observations, have been increasingly applied to assess road condition. Machine and deep learning methods have recently been used to identify potholes, rutting, and surface roughness based on image, video, and sensor data. Other approaches employed to predict and evaluate road condition include laboratory testing, traffic monitoring, transportation data, and meteorological records. Although traditional field methods remain dominant, emerging technologies are increasingly used to assess forest road condition. Reliable prediction of trafficability requires integrating multiple data sources. Despite technological advances, real-time dynamic road condition maps and situation awareness are lacking, and determining the actual condition of a road often requires a field visit. Novel digital solutions and data sources could improve condition forecasting and support more efficient forest road network maintenance. However, the generalizability of these findings may be limited by the scope of the review and language constraints.
This semi-systematic review examines how augmented reality (AR) was developed and applied in forestry between 2000 and 2025. With a European focus and international scope, it integrates peer-reviewed literature, grey literature, and commercially available tools to capture progress and practice. It maps AR use cases, characterises hardware, software, and data pipelines, assesses Technology Readiness Levels, and identifies barriers, research gaps, and priorities for future deployment. AR in forestry is moving from isolated prototypes towards early operational implementation. The most mature applications are found in forest inventory, urban forestry, and roundwood measurement, where smartphone- and tablet-based tools using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), Red, Green, Blue, and Depth (RGB-D) sensing, Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM), and computer vision have reached moderate to high readiness, with some commercially deployed. Head-mounted displays and machine-integrated systems are being tested for stand visualisation, digital tree marking, planting guidance, and harvesting support, but most remain at pilot stage. Most systems cluster around TRL 4–6, while only a limited subset reaches TRL 7–9. AR in forestry is a heterogeneous but rapidly evolving ecosystem of mobile, wearable, and machine-integrated solutions. Persistent barriers include under-canopy tracking instability, weak georeferencing, limited ruggedness and battery life, ergonomic constraints, poor interoperability, and limited validation. AR nevertheless shows strong potential as a human-centred interface, but wider deployment will require forest-adapted localisation, lightweight 3D visualisation, stronger system integration, and closer collaboration across stakeholders.
Ground-based 3D point cloud technologies, including static terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), mobile laser scanning (MLS), and close-range photogrammetry, are increasingly used for estimation of aboveground vegetation biomass as they provide detailed structural representations across vegetation types; however, a comprehensive synthesis of how point-cloud data are translated into biomass estimates remains lacking. This review evaluates current approaches, performance patterns, and methodological gaps in biomass estimation using 3D ground-based point clouds. We systematically reviewed and analyzed 160 research articles (comprising 171 device-specific studies) published until the end of 2025 (first appearing in 2010). Research was dominated by tree-based applications (74
Container type, volume, depth, and cultivation density represent key and economically relevant decisions for forest nurseries, as they directly shape seedling traits and outplanting performance. Despite numerous studies, existing knowledge remains fragmented and context-specific, limiting the development of general, evidence-based guidelines. This review examines how these container variables influence seedling morphology in the nursery and outplanting survival across taxonomic plant groups, seedling ages, and planting environments. We found that larger container volume and depth increase proportionally more root than shoot growth resulting in reduced shoot-to-root mass ratio (S:R), whereas increasing cultivation density reduces seedling biomass and increases S:R. These patterns are more pronounced in cell containers and in ≤ 1 year-old seedlings. Container depth enhances root development particularly in angiosperms. Larger volume and deeper containers improve outplanting survival, especially in cell containers, in ≤ 1 year-old plants, angiosperms, and in harsher, forest planting sites. Planting site aridity does not modulate the effects of container properties on survival. Interestingly, outplanting survival is influenced by both direct effects of container characteristics and indirect pathways mediated by morphology, which differ between angiosperms and gymnosperms. Container characteristics are major drivers of seedling morphology in the nursery and early field survival. These findings support prioritizing larger containers and cell containers for ≤ 1 year-old stock to optimize performance under harsh planting sites. Increasing container depth promotes larger seedlings by enhancing root growth in large-seeded, taproot-forming angiosperms, whereas survival in gymnosperms appears to be more influenced by cultivation density. This review provides a quantitative basis for improving container selection and nursery decision-making in forest plantings.
Bark beetle outbreaks are intensifying under climate change, yet the links among drought stress, beetle attack and colonization, rapid tree mortality, and tree physiology, remain poorly integrated across disciplines. This review provides a comprehensive, mechanistic synthesis of recent advances in tree physiology, bark beetle ecology, and microbial interactions to examine how drought alters xylem–phloem function, carbon allocation, and defense capacity, how these changes affect beetle host selection and reproductive success, and how associated microbes accelerate host decline. Drought-driven declines in xylem water potential constrain phloem transport through reduced turgor and increased sap viscosity, reshaping carbon distribution and defense deployment. Moderate drought may transiently enhance some defenses, whereas severe or prolonged drought depletes non-structural carbohydrates, impairs resin flow, and increases phloem nutritional suitability for beetles. Beetle attacks cause spatially complex phloem disruption and local carbon depletion together with their associated fungi, which also contribute to pit membrane degradation, increasing vulnerability to embolism. The altered bark and phloem microenvironments, including gas exchange and moisture conditions within bark beetle galleries, may further influence microbial activity and host responses. We propose a cross-disciplinary, integrated mechanistic framework in which drought-induced physiological destabilization predisposes trees to beetle attack, after which phloem disruption and microbial activity amplify carbon limitation and hydraulic dysfunction. Hydraulic failure may represent a convergence point among interacting stressors, underscoring the complex multi-trophic feedbacks driving infestation expansion. Key gaps remain in quantifying phloem dynamics, bark permeability, and subcortical microclimates during attack, limiting predictions of forest vulnerability under increasing drought and bark beetle pressure.
Foliar insect herbivory is a growing global threat to the health and productivity of forests. Timely and spatially explicit monitoring is essential for effective silvicultural interventions. Remote sensing (RS) technologies are powerful tools for detecting, mapping, and monitoring insect herbivory, offering scalable alternatives to traditional ground-based methods. This systematic review synthesises findings from 60 studies published between 2010 and February 2026, categorising them by insect feeding guilds and operational scales to identify key advancements, research gaps, and future opportunities. Research has predominantly focused on a limited number of host-pest systems and geographic regions. Results reveal a strong emphasis on landscape-scale assessments of leaf-chewing guilds, while tree-level studies remain underrepresented. Post-2020 adoption of Sentinel-2 has demonstrated strong potential for herbivory characterisation across feeding guilds. Leaf-chewing studies used spectral, structural, textural, and polarimetric features achieving high accuracy (R2 = 0.34-0.9, overall accuracy = 73-97.7
This systematic review aims to map the current landscape of Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications within forest operations engineering research. It seeks to identify dominant AI techniques, common data sources, key problem domains, demonstrated strengths, persistent challenges, and future research trajectories by analyzing a curated dataset of 173 scholarly papers, providing a comprehensive overview of AI’s transformative role in this specific scientific topic. Current research demonstrates a significant surge in AI adoption in forest operations engineering, particularly since 2017. Machine learning (ML), especially deep learning methods like Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), frequently combined with remote sensing data from satellites, drones, and LiDAR, is pivotal. These tools are applied to optimize wood supply chains, assess ergonomic risks, and manage forest infrastructure by accurately extracting and updating road and skid trail networks. Furthermore, tasks such as tree species classification and 3D forest reconstruction are increasingly utilized in operational contexts, specifically to plan extraction trails in single-tree selection harvesting and to feed Decision Support Systems (DSS) for optimal harvesting system selection. AI enables more accurate and efficient solutions to complex forest engineering challenges. However, practical implementation remains constrained by the "black box" nature of AI, poor model generalizability across diverse ecosystems, and heavy computational demands and large datasets required—which are often incompatible with a typical forest manager's workflows and budget. Future advancements must focus on explainable AI, external validation, benchmarking, and user-friendly, edge-computing systems to transition AI from theoretical research to practical, operational forestry tools. These will further enhance sustainable forest management and engineering practices, guiding impactful future research and application.
Fast-growing plantation resources will increasingly be relied upon to meet global demand for renewable timber products. Concerns exist regarding the quality of wood from plantations and second-growth forests; however, the heartwood quality of timber sourced from plantations and grown for its distinctive color and durability has received little attention. We examine the current status of selected species (in terms of research and development related to heartwood quality) known for their valuable heartwood and explore options that might maintain or improve heartwood quality of plantation grown trees. Plantation grown trees of all species examined had heartwood inferior to that sourced from natural forests. Management of plantation forests to maximize growth can unintentionally promote one process (growth) over other processes (heartwood formation) that may be detrimental to the management objectives related to heartwood durability and color. Heartwood characteristics can be targeted for improvement via breeding or by clonal forestry. Silvicultural interventions to induce a stress response may also improve heartwood quality. Failure to produce quality heartwood has manifold implications, both for plantation growers who may be unable to sell their products for the highest price, and retailers whose reputations depend on meeting customer performance expectations. Management decisions that deliberately cause a stress response (as opposed to maximizing growth) should be considered if plantations are being established using species valued for their heartwood properties. Advanced genetics and silvicultural strategies to promote heartwood formation on suitable sites are necessary to ensure that high value heartwood can be obtained from plantation forests.
This review provides an overview of current forest fires and insect outbreaks in North America, examining how these disturbances affect wood quality over time. It highlights two of the most destructive insect pests: the eastern spruce budworm (SBW) and the mountain pine beetle (MPB). The article also examines the challenges of processing disturbance-affected wood and explores its potential uses in lumber, engineered wood products, and wood-based panels. Forest fires have intensified and become more frequent in recent years, especially in temperate and boreal forests. Unprecedented SBW outbreaks have also been reported in Eastern Canada. While MPB outbreaks have decreased since 2019, they remain cyclical, indicating the possibility of future resurgences. From 2023 to 2025, these disturbances affected over 60 million hectares in Canada, resulting in significant tree damage and mortality. Although disturbance-affected wood can still be used for lumber and high-value products, its quality deteriorates over time while it remains in the forest, particularly after a fire. Manufacturing products from such wood is difficult due to its low moisture content, changed properties, and high defect rate. Disturbance-affected wood typically has lower moisture content, increased permeability, greater brittleness, and a higher incidence of defects, such as insect holes, blue stain, decay, and checks, compared to wood from sound trees. These characteristics can negatively impact lumber recovery and grading and reduce its suitability for secondary manufacturing of wood products like laminated veneer lumber, plywood, or oriented strand board. Nonetheless, this type of wood can be transformed into value-added products such as particleboard, fiberboard, or cross-laminated timber, especially when used in limited proportions or in hybrid compositions. Further research is needed to understand how the properties of disturbance-affected wood change over time and how these changes affect the production of various products. Furthermore, optimizing log sorting, conversion processes, and manufacturing techniques to account for the unique characteristics of disturbance-affected wood is important to ensure the quality and performance of the final products.
Quambalaria spp. are fungal pathogens originating from Australian eucalypt species that are becoming increasingly important globally. For example, Quambalaria eucalypti, which was once considered a minor pathogen, now poses a significant threat to plantation productivity and forest health across continents. Their spread has been made possible through the expansion of eucalypt plantation forestry outside Australia, the movement of plant material and the increase in travel and trade, which facilitates the intercontinental movement of pathogens. This review summarises current knowledge regarding the taxonomy, distribution, life cycle and ecological and commercial impacts of Quambalaria spp. and some considerations for their control. Recent studies have discovered new species of Quambalaria and there is emerging evidence of host shifts to other genera in the Myrtaceae. Outbreaks in Brazil, China, Indonesia and South Africa illustrate the rapid spread of Quambalaria spp. to new plantation environments. These pathogens threaten eucalypt plantations worldwide because clonal propagation reduces tree diversity and the trade of plant material facilitates their spread. Evidence of sexual reproduction has been identified in one species, Quambalaria pitereka, alluding to a high evolutionary potential. Although new molecular diagnostics and resistance screening tools are emerging, their use in the control of these pathogens remains limited. Quambalaria spp. are important tree pathogens that are increasing their impact beyond their ancestral home in Australia. Their impact on plantation forestry and native forests underscores the broader vulnerabilities of forest ecosystems. Mitigating their impact will require integrated approaches that combine resistance breeding, enhanced surveillance, stringent quarantine measures, integrated disease management and changes to silviculture. Further research into host range, infection biology and pathogen evolution and the development of effective disease control is essential to safeguard global forests and ensure sustainable plantation forestry.
Comparing the available supply, the societal demand, and the actual use of forest ecosystem services (FES) reveals where societal needs are met, where forests are overexploited to do so, and/or where untapped potential exists. Due to the complexity of this task, many studies focus exclusively on either supply or demand, disregarding their interconnection and limiting the integration of scientific findings into policy and practice. To better understand and address this gap, we aim to identify the main challenges in quantitatively mapping and modelling FES supply-demand mismatches, and to outline practical opportunities for integrating both perspectives. This study presents the synthesis of a systematic literature mapping, where proxy indicators and estimates used to quantify the supply and demand of FES across Europe were collected. We discuss four key challenges, identified from this synthesis, that currently limit the integration of FES supply and demand in practice: (1) inconsistencies in FES quantification methods, (2) limitations of the ecosystem service cascade framework, (3) issues with data availability and reliability, and (4) the interdisciplinary nature of matching supply and demand. Different integration pathways exist, depending on the specific FES and study aim, as a universal integration approach remains unrealistic. Identifying mismatches between the supply and demand of FES remains challenging in practice, especially across large spatial scales. Drawing on an extensive systematic literature mapping exercise, this study uncovers key underlying causes for this research gap and highlights the importance of tailored, FES-specific strategies reconciling ecological and socioeconomic perspectives.
The occurrence of biotic forest disturbances caused by pests such as bark beetles has increased significantly in recent decades. The severity of the disturbances is exacerbated by climate change-driven environmental conditions that favour pests, leading to widespread tree mortality worldwide. Existing remote sensing approaches have provided valuable insights into understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of bark beetle-induced tree mortality. We review and discuss current challenges and research gaps in the field to provide pathways for future research on bark beetle infestation detection, spatial prediction of infestation risk and future spread, and post-disturbance management. We identified several under-addressed topics, including (i) knowledge gaps in tree eco-physiological processes and lack of domain integration for remote sensing-based early stress detection; (ii) lack of remote sensing-assisted large-scale assessments of susceptibility to disturbance, and (iii) under-exploitation of remote sensing-based methods for post-disturbance assessment and for decision support for forest management of disturbed areas. Aside from direct detection of signs of beetle attacks, earth observation has been used for mapping forests’ susceptibility to bark beetle disturbance and for the assessment of post-disturbance impacts. However, studies focusing on the latter two topics are still comparably rare and these topics may hold further potential if sensor and scale synergies are better exploited and ecological process understanding is integrated. Near-real-time large-scale monitoring, infestation prediction scenarios, and pre-/post-disturbance risk assessments derived from remotely sensed observations have the potential to inform and optimise decision-making of current and future forest management.
Blue carbon is an important concept for environmental policy. Blue carbon strategies (conservation and restoration for carbon gain) have been primarily implemented with mangroves, though are likely to be suitable for other tidal forested wetlands. Here, we discuss the expanding definition of blue carbon encompassing all tidal forested wetlands, synthesize ecological and carbon sink knowledge of tidal forested wetlands, and reflect on key actions in mangrove blue carbon research and implementation that could be applied to other tidal forested wetlands. Conceptually, the blue carbon concept has now expanded beyond traditional coastal vegetated ecosystems to include all tidal wetlands, including tidal forested wetlands. Emerging data on carbon sequestration, emissions, and budgets from around the world now show that many tidal forested wetland ecosystems are carbon sinks at a magnitude similar to mangroves. At the global scale, mangroves have become incorporated into blue carbon strategies rapidly compared to other tidal forested wetlands, facilitated by agenda-setting papers, adequate data addressing concerns on emissions and permanence, the availability of global maps, a clear ecosystem definition, clear accounting and policy frameworks, and international stakeholders who acted as high profile ecosystem advocates, alongside long-term capacity building efforts. This provides a roadmap for implementation in other tidal forested wetlands. Tidal forested wetlands other than mangroves have high potential for blue carbon management. Many tidal forested wetlands share biophysical similarities with mangroves, carbon stocks can be similar, and methane emissions are often no higher. An increasing evidence base, challenging assumptions around greenhouse gas fluxes, and robust engagement with policy actors and frameworks, could increase the use of blue carbon for tidal forested wetland conservation and restoration.
This review explores the growing relevance of simulation in advancing next-generation forest operations and logistics. It addresses the critical question of how simulation methods, such as discrete event simulation, agent-based simulation, and hybrid simulation and modeling approaches, contribute to better decisions in forest engineering practice. We highlight the unique characteristics of simulation in forestry compared to other sectors, introduce its current applications, and examine methodological innovations that enhance forest operations management at operational, tactical, and strategic levels. Additionally, we assess the evolving role of simulation in forest engineering, specifying its transition from a primary focus on wood procurement to the integrated management of ecosystem services. Recent applications demonstrate the value of simulation for forest engineering beyond traditional productivity analysis, now incorporating sustainability dimensions, risk mitigation planning, stakeholder coordination, and silvicultural practices to balance different objectives. Simulation has become a key method enabling better design of forest value chains from tree planting to harvesting and logistics, incorporating equipment interactions, occupational risk, and integration with real-time data. Recent advances combining simulation and optimization methods have proven particularly powerful for capturing complex stakeholder interactions and emergent system behaviors. Digital twin technologies and the integration with artificial intelligence represent emerging frontiers, while participatory modeling approaches show promise in bridging the gap between sophisticated analytical tools and practical field implementation. Simulation has become an important method in forest engineering for modeling complex trade-offs inherent in multifunctional forestry while addressing operational uncertainties. Key methodological advances in forest operations include improved access to better data, more powerful simulation software, integration with optimization and generative artificial intelligence, and the emergence of real-time adaptive systems. However, persistent challenges remain in data availability, stakeholder engagement, and translating model outputs into operational field realities. Future research must address uncertainties related to incorporating better datasets into the models and real-time data streams to increase the robustness of the outcomes. Simulation offers a transformative opportunity for education, equipping future forest engineers and wood supply chain managers with the skills and mindset needed to navigate increasingly complex decision environments.
The genus Anoplophora includes 52 species, of which three are known to be invasive and a fourth has recently been identified as a potential international high-risk invasive. One species, the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky)), has been called one of the 100 worst global invasive species. Here, we present an overview of available information regarding members of the genus Anoplophora at risk of spreading beyond their native ranges, including summaries of their ecology, economic impacts, management, and taxonomy, with an emphasis on information that has been made available in the last decade. This updated review shows that since the revision of the genus by Lingafelter and Hoebeke (2002) the number of recognized species has increased from 36 to 52, and we have a wealth of new information on the invasion history, phenology of the high-risk species, knowledge of pheromones, assessments of host-range, and the exploration of trapping methods. Efforts have been made to identify potentially useful natural enemies to help manage invasive populations if eradication efforts are unsuccessful. The species of Anoplophora that have established outside their native range have native distributions that cover larger geographic areas and feed on more tree species from multiple genera than do the species that have not dispersed internationally. While infestations of A. glabripennis continue to be detected and the risk of significant ecological and economic impacts remains high, limited economic information has been developed, and methods for management have changed little since the first detections of A. glabripennis outside its native range in New York, U.S. in 1996. Many research gaps remain for the invasive species of Anoplophora and more information on the other Anoplophora species is needed to prevent their movement and improve early detection.
Lignin valorization plays a central role in advancing the development of bio-intelligent biorefineries and the production of renewable carbon materials as technical lignins have been garnering attention from the scientific community. Despite their promising functionalities, the commercialization of lignin-derived carbon materials remains limited due to challenges in scalability, consistency and market integration; hopefully, current efforts in pilot-scale production and ongoing early industrial trials in Europe and North America may change the perception. Thereby, this review (i) uncovers recent efforts and companies (e.g., UPM Biochemicals, Borregaard, Renmatix, Suzano) aiming for lignin upcycling and commercialization, (ii) identifies branded lignin products (e.g., UPM BioPiva™100, Lignode®, Ecolig®) and key gaps in current literature, and (iii) offers recommendations to address gaps. Advancements in fractionation, chemical modification, and material design are essential to unlock lignin's full potential in a circular bioeconomy. Thereby, we present a selection of recent advancements in lignin extraction and recovery, production of functional carbon materials and thermosetting polymers via click chemistry, and potential appliances of organic and carbonized lignin (e.g., resins, cryogels, electrodes, carbon fibers and nanodots). Furthermore, there are growing needs for studies that design life cycle- and techno-economic analyses suitable for real-case scenarios, assessing large-scale processes. This review explicates the macromolecular structural aspects of lignin, pertinent functional groups and their implications in advanced applications, offering unique insights into (i) new, emerging products from various lignin streams, (ii) the commercialization stages of these technologies, and (iii) the strategic role of lignin in advancing sustainable materials aligned with net-zero carbon goals, given its renewable nature.
The Global South holds a significant share of the world’s private forests, which are increasingly recognized for their role in meeting climate and biodiversity goals. This is the first systematic review of published research on private forests in the Global South, providing an overview of existing literature. Based on an analysis of 655 peer-reviewed papers published between 1997 and 2024, we identify trends and gaps in this body of research and suggest directions for future studies. Countries with more forest cover and a higher number of forestry research institutions tend to produce more studies on private forests within their borders. Only 56 of 137 countries in the Global South are listed as study sites for private forest research, mainly in Latin America and Asia. Although Africa has extensive forests, research efforts usually focus on government-managed forests and often overlook private forestry issues. In Latin America, most studies emphasize biophysical aspects, biodiversity, and conservation, while policy discussions tend to focus on ecosystem service incentives. In Asia, studies tend to prioritize forest economy, business, property rights, and land tenure over biodiversity and biophysical factors. Research on private forests over the past three decades has revealed regional and thematic bias, which narrows our overall understanding of how incentives, property rights, and political institutions together shape forest outcomes. To fill these gaps, future studies should focus on data-scarce areas, examine governance tensions between government control and private incentives, and encourage institutional and technological innovations that enhance private forest management.
Calonectria is a globally distributed genus of plant-pathogenic fungi causing destructive diseases across a wide range of woody and herbaceous hosts. This review synthesizes recent advances in the species delimitation, host range dynamics, reproductive strategies, and global dispersal patterns of Calonectria. Particular attention is given to the ecological adaptability, cryptic diversity, and climate-driven shifts in distribution of these important fungi. The review identifies key knowledge gaps and provides recent research regarding genome-based diagnostics, adaptive disease management, and forward-looking biosecurity measures. Polyphasic taxonomic approaches and molecular systematics have substantially refined the classification of Calonectria, which now includes 136 species grouped into 11 species complexes. Some species, such as Ca. pseudonaviculata, exhibit strict host specificity; others like Ca. pauciramosa have wide host ranges and are globally invasive. Both sexual and asexual reproduction enhance persistence and facilitate dispersal, often via infected nursery stock and contaminated substrates. Climate change is projected to expand the distribution of multiple Calonectria species into new regions. Despite increasing reports of international spread, genomic surveillance remains limited, and diagnostic inconsistencies continue to hinder effective detection and containment. The broad host range, complex reproductive biology, and environmental adaptability of Calonectria species enhances their growing threat to plant health worldwide. Their spread is accelerated by global trade and climate change, while unresolved taxonomic challenges and underdeveloped molecular tools constrain opportunities for their management. Integrated strategies that combine phylogenomics, risk modeling, and coordinated surveillance are urgently needed to mitigate its impact across agricultural, horticultural, and forest systems.
