Built heritage conservation is increasingly shaped by digital technologies, particularly photogrammetry, (HBIM), and (IoT), based monitoring. This paper presents a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature examining how these technologies have been applied and integrated within built heritage conservation. Following PRISMA 2020, studies retrieved from four major academic databases were analysed using thematic synthesis and a structured integration-level framework. The review shows that photogrammetry and HBIM are widely adopted for three-dimensional documentation and semantic modelling, while their integration with IoT-based environmental monitoring remains limited. Most studies report isolated, connected digital applications, resulting in fragmented and non-standardised workflows. A clear geographical imbalance is also evident, with strong representation of European case studies and limited contributions from Southeast Asian and tropical heritage contexts. Overall, the findings highlight a persistent gap between individual digital tools and fully integrated conservation workflows, and provide a reference for advancing more coherent, preventive, and context-sensitive digital heritage practices.
Archaeological archives produced before the adoption of digital and stratigraphic recording present both challenges and underexplored analytical potential. This article presents a reflexive approach to the reuse of legacy data through game-engine-based 3D visualization, grounded in a case study of the University of Michigan's 1924-1935 excavations at Karanis (Egypt). We propose an integrated analytical framework that brings together the concepts of level of detail (LOD), level of information (LOI), and plausibility to guide a workflow combining digitization, database design, 3D modeling, and interactive data exploration. Rather than photorealistic completeness, our approach prioritizes informational transparency and the reunification of reconstructed spaces with their archival foundations. Through a prototype focused on four buildings, we demonstrate how game-engine-based visualization can function as an analytical environment for reassessing chronology, phasing, and spatial relationships in pre-stratigraphic datasets. The principles outlined here offer transferable strategies for reflexive engagement with other large-scale legacy archaeological archives.
This study presents an innovative digital tool and an approach based on GIS use, designed to diagnose the conservation status of archaeological earthen fortifications. The tool standardizes data collection, maps vulnerability, and supports the prioritization of conservation actions. Using a Leopold matrix, it generates a Vulnerability Index to assess weathering and degradation, while an Expanded Vulnerability Index incorporates rammed earth typologies and mineralogical compositions analyzed through X-ray diffraction (XRD). A sensitivity analysis is also conducted to assess the robustness of the model and evaluate the consistency of both Indexes under different parameter configurations. The model was tested on 53 medieval fortifications in Spain and 1405 rammed-earth walls. Results highlight four fortifications with extreme vulnerability linked to fragmentation and detachment, increasing exposure to rain and raising the risk of irreversible loss. XRD analysis also detected deficiencies in restoration mixtures in one fortification, reducing durability. By integrating conservation assessment, archaeometry, and GIS-based risk modeling, this digital approach offers a transformative innovation for archaeology and heritage management, enabling informed decision-making and ensuring preservation.
