Australia's cultural and scientific collections hold millions of artefacts that remain undigitised due to the prohibitive cost, time, and immobility of current 3D capture systems. To address these barriers, the Mobile 3D Digitisation Lab (M3DL) was developed under an Australian Research Council LIEF (Linkage, Infrastructure, Equipment and Facilities) grant (LE250100024). In 2025, the research team developed a transportable, multi-camera photogrammetry system augmented with robotics and 3D sound capture capabilities. Designed to increase accessibility, the M3DL significantly reduces the time taken to digitise objects and provides vehicle-transportable equipment that allows for artefacts to be scanned in situ, whether in communities or on museum sites. This paper first addresses the contextual challenges and opportunities that led to the development of the M3DL, then details core architecture and build specifications, and presents results from early field trials. It concludes by discussing emerging issues in its deployment that will be useful to future similar developments in the accessibility, speed, and efficiency of 3D digitisation in the cultural preservation sector.
Digital documentation techniques such as laser scanning and photogrammetry rely on the physical presence of heritage structures, limiting their applicability to demolished or inaccessible buildings. In such cases, reconstruction must be based on fragmented archival materials and contextual knowledge, raising challenges of inconsistency, incompleteness, and interpretive uncertainty. This paper presents an archival-based digital reconstruction of the demolished Aboriginal girls’ dormitory at Cherbourg, Australia, developed through the systematic integration of architectural drawing, historical photographs, film footage, and correspondence records within a phased BIM workflow. The workflow produced a phased Revit model, a 1:25 physical model, and an interactive virtual environment developed for interpretive review. The study contributes a case-based workflow for reconstructing demolished architecture from heterogeneous archival sources under conditions of incomplete, inconsistent, and temporally uneven evidence. The reconstruction process is organised through cross-source triangulation, relative chronological alignment of archival materials, and iterative refinement of uncertain architectural elements. The study also contributes a confidence-based documentation framework that distinguishes (i) dimensional, (ii) temporal, and (iii) interpretive uncertainty, and illustrates how these can be documented and managed within the modelling process. Community engagement is used as an interpretive and contextual resource to clarify selected gaps and discrepancies in the archival record, rather than as a means of formal validation. The findings show how digital models can function not only as representational outputs, but also as tools for externalising assumptions, supporting comparison across heterogeneous evidence, and enabling iterative refinement of reconstruction decisions. Rather than positioning reconstruction as exact recovery, this work frames it as an evidence-informed interpretive practice, and illustrates an approach for reconstructing lost architectural heritage in contexts where physical verification is no longer possible.
This study explores the potential of a large language model (LLM)-powered Conversational Agent (CA) as a virtual museum guide to enhance visitor experi-ences. A prototype was developed, enabling natural language interactions with an LLM-powered CA about augmented reality (AR) artwork viewed through a head-mounted device (HMD). An exploratory field study with 22 museum vis-itors found positive evaluations based on a multimedia guide assessment scale. Results showed that the most prevalent were fact-based questions, while qual-itative findings highlighted appreciation for personalized information, concerns over information gaps, challenges in formulating questions, and discomfort with public voice interactions. The study underscores the potential for LLM-powered guides for museum experiences, while identifying design challenges for future re-search and development.
Temple D in the Valley of the Temples in Agrigento is a preeminent example of Greek sacred architecture in Sicily. Built in the 5th century B.C., soon after the victory of the Battle of Himera over the Carthaginians (480 B.C.), it is traditionally attributed to Hera (Lacinia), despite recent scholarly debates regarding its dedication. During 2020 excavations by the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, fragments of Parian marble (Paros-2) – initially unearthed in the 1920s – reemerged and were confirmed as part of the temple's original roof. This study proposes a reconstructive hypothesis of Temple D and its roofing by integrating digitization and parametric modeling to create an informative tool for conservation and enhancement. The multidisciplinary workflow involved: Structured-light 3D scanning and Visual Programming Language (VPL) processing of the roof fragments; the creation of a precise Building Information Model (BIM) of the current state, based on surveys from the Polytechnic University of Madrid; a virtual reconstruction of the temple within a parametric environment. This digital framework allows for interactive modifications and scientific validation by archaeologists, enabling the creation of reliable digital products that can facilitate the conservation of the temple. Based on both archaeological evidence and structural analysis, the study concludes that a wooden load-bearing system supporting an entirely marble roof is the most plausible reconstruction. Ultimately, this methodology offers a replicable model for integrating digital tools to advance the knowledge, preservation, and accessibility of archaeological heritage through potential VR and AR applications.
Japanese Americans constructed Japanese-style gardens inside U.S. incarceration camps during World War II as expressions of cultural continuity. Many now survive only as fragmentary archaeological traces, making reconstruction-especially of stone-centric gardens-methodologically challenging. Using the Block 22 mess hall garden at Manzanar, this study presents an evidence-graded digital reconstruction workflow integrated with VRbased spatial inspection. Existing remains were recorded using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry and aligned to an archaeological plan through a quantified 2D similarity transformation. Missing or incomplete features constrained by plans and archival photographs were reconstructed as evidence-based elements, while features lacking spatial evidence were implemented as interpretive components. The integrated model was deployed in VR with element-level source attribution and uncertainty disclosure. Results demonstrate how a small set of validated stone anchors can stabilize interpretation in fragmentary landscapes. The study proposes an audit-friendly framework for reconstructing contested cultural landscapes through transparent uncertainty management and immersive spatial interpretation.
This article investigates the photogrammetry method and its potential in digital documentation of cultural heritage within a preliminary conservation study workflow. The main purpose of the study is to present and validate a replicable four-phase workflow protocol that integrates rapid and low-cost 3D reconstruction pipeline using consumer-grade equipment and open-source SfM photogrammetry software, specifically AliceVision Meshroom, into this workflow. Furthermore, this article questions whether these rapidly obtained 3D models can serve as a working base for conservation and design proposals. The article details the 3D reconstruction pipeline process through the photogrammetry method and presents the case study of the Prusias ad Hypium Ancient Theatre in D & uuml;zce Province in T & uuml;rkiye. The methodology involves capturing numerous photographs of the theatre in the field study and processing them into a 3D model using the software. Despite obtaining a model with minor (negligible) topological gaps and less detail than precise survey documents, dimensional deviations remained below 1% compared to survey drawings, and the process was highly efficient. The resulting 3D model proved sufficient for developing and presenting conceptual architectural and conservation proposals, especially where final survey drawings were unavailable. Findings emphasize that this method provides an accessible, practical, and effective approach for preliminary studies, facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration, communication, and administrative decision-making, as well as enabling rapid documentation in emergency situations. The application of the case study was instrumental in gaining approval for preserving the Konuralp settlement as a mixed (archaeological and historical urban) site. This study highlights the significant potential of this replicable workflow to advance widespread cultural heritage documentation, coexistence and conservation efforts, offering a valuable working base for architectural design.
This study examines strategies for the digital valorization of cultural heritage, drawing on lessons from international cross-cultural experiences to inform the preservation and promotion of Casablanca's architectural legacy. It builds upon a prior study that compared Casablanca's heritage valorization strategies with those of Lisbon, Barcelona, and Paris, extending the analysis to ten additional major cities-including Madrid, Porto, and Marseille. Through an extensive review of these initiatives, the research identifies best practices and innovative approaches that integrate technology with heritage management. The methodology combines an in-depth analysis of documented case studies with collaborative discussions involving experts in urban planning, architecture, landscape design, and digital heritage. These multidisciplinary exchanges provide a rich foundation for understanding the interplay between cultural identity, technological innovation, and public engagement. The findings highlight the transformative potential of digital tools in enhancing heritage visibility, facilitating interactive experiences, and fostering civic participation. However, they also underscore the need to address challenges such as technological accessibility, long-term sustainability, and the safeguarding of cultural authenticity. The study concludes with tailored recommendations for Casablanca, aimed at developing a robust and inclusive digital strategy that ensures the preservation, promotion, and global recognition of its architectural heritage in the digital era.
UNESCO has developed a global strategic framework to address the challenges of digital heritage preservation through the Digital Heritage Agenda 2025. Interaction design for museum exhibitions has become an important way to improve the user experience and knowledge dissemination in the digital era, but existing research lacks a comprehensive exploration of its evolutionary trends and research priorities. Given this, this study conducted a bibliometric analysis and an index regression mode of 656 peer reviewed articles indexed within the Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus and PubMed databases. Through visualization tools such as CiteSpace, this study employed methods such as keyword clustering and co-occurrence analysis to systematically reveal the findings: The inclusive design approach is a new trend in museum interaction design. The research results indicate that a dynamic knowledge ecosystem composed of technology, cultural education and cultural heritage is the potential trend of the future. This study provides empirical references for museum practitioners when developing user oriented exhibition design. However, this conclusions are based on bibliometric patterns, and should be further eaxmined through empirical studies of design practice, user behavior, and institution adoption.
AI-enhanced extended reality (XR) technologies are increasingly relevant to cultural heritage, yet existing reviews often focus on specific applications, XR modalities, or educational outcomes, while giving less attention to hardware, infrastructure, and deployment conditions that shape user experience, interaction design, heritage interpretation, engagement, and learning. This creates a practical and analytical gap for professionals who must evaluate rapidly evolving technologies and decide which solutions are feasible, sustainable, and meaningful for their institutional needs. In this work, we create a reference point for cultural heritage professionals — museum curators, archaeologists, librarians, historians, architects, researchers, and other stakeholders — by navigating them through recent advances in available and emerging hardware and equipment for the establishment and operation of AI-enhanced XR cultural environments. Methodologically, we perform a scoping review based on the Arksey and O'Malley Framework and the PRISMA-ScR statement, mapping heterogeneous technical evidence across cultural contexts and disciplines. We propose a taxonomy of deployment contexts and users, allowing readers to relate technologies to specific cultural scenarios. Reviewed technologies are classified into six domains: AR Wearables and smart glasses, holograms, Metaverse and Virtual Worlds, UAVs and drones, robotics, and brain-computer interfaces. For each domain, we discuss AI integration, key specifications, available solutions, advantages, limitations, challenges, future trends, and promising architectures. We examine cross-cutting AI hardware shared across these domains. Beyond cataloguing technologies, the review considers how technological choices enable or constrain interpretive clarity, accessibility, scalability, engagement, and learning. Finally, we propose a comparative framework to support technology selection and strategic planning in cultural heritage environments.
This research explores the potential of employing Metaverse technologies to re-enact heritage spaces within urban environments of religious and cultural significance. The study focuses on developing an interactive digital model of the historical center of Karbala, based on 3D modeling, and integrating it into a Metaverse platform that allows users to explore and interact with the urban space. The study adopted a quasi-experimental approach to evaluate the user experience within the virtual environment through a questionnaire measuring immersion levels, visual representation quality, contextual responsiveness, and ease of use. Data were analyzed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient and Pearson correlation analysis. The results demonstrated the virtual environment's ability to enhance spatial awareness of the heritage site and revealed a positive correlation between immersion levels and users' sense of connection to the place. These findings indicate promising potential for Metaverse technologies in supporting the documentation and presentation of heritage sites within interactive digital experiences.
The church of San Francesco della Scarpa is located in the historic centre of Lecce, Southern Italy. It received its name in the 16th century, when the minor friars, who lived in the demolished convent of Santa Maria del Tempio, were divided into conventual and observant groups: the former wore shoes, unlike the latter. In recent years, the church has experienced issues with structural stability. To identify the causes, an integrated nondestructive testing workflow has been applied, combining a series of investigations carried out using nondestructive methods. These included Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), seismic tomography (ST), passive seismic (PS), and laser scanning surveys. The results reveal several structural problems affecting the church, including vertical cracking in the load-bearing masonry walls, localized foundation settlement, and deterioration of the roof structure due to prolonged moisture exposure. The proposed multi-imaging strategy provides a replicable basis for prioritising targeted inspections, monitoring, and minimally invasive strengthening measures.
The combination of photogrammetry (PG) and multispectral imaging (MSI) techniques is today, more than ever, an important issue for the 3D visualization of colourful clay figurines in a digital environment for cultural heritage professionals. This paper presents a research methodology that integrates 2D photographs derived from visible (VIS) radiation, Ultraviolet-induced Visible Luminescence (UVL) and Visible-induced Luminescence (VIL), into 3D reconstructions that allow distinguishing information not visible to the naked eye. The process is carried out using affordable equipment and open-source software. This approach has been used in order to study three colourful clay figurines, that are currently located in the two archaeological museums of Chalkida. The study aims to investigate the original materials, focusing both on their inherent colour properties and on the materials introduced during previous conservation interventions. These findings bring us closer to the accurate management of the visual characteristics of archaeological artifacts, thereby facilitating novel approaches for the implementation of enhanced digital restoration techniques encompassing both chromatic and morphological aspects.
This study explores the visual depictions of Belang boats in the Hikayat Lonthoir manuscript from the Banda Islands, employing digital image processing techniques to enhance understanding of their cultural significance. Through methods including colour mapping, RGB channel decomposition, edge detection, and keypoint analysis, the research investigates the structural and ornamental features of the traditional Bandanese boats. The findings reveal the deep interconnection between maritime traditions, oral histories, and the visual culture of the Banda community. Furthermore, the study highlights the potential of applying advanced computer vision and machine learning techniques to cultural heritage research. By integrating digital methodologies with historical analysis, this work demonstrates how visual narratives can be preserved, revitalised, and explored in unprecedented ways, offering new opportunities for interdisciplinary engagement and heritage preservation.
The development of semantic models in the fields of cultural heritage, archaeology and digital epigraphy has gained a continuous and growing interest in the digital and information science world. In our research, which is based on a selection of Greek inscriptions dated in the 4th - 6th AD from the extensive early Byzantine cemetery in Ghor as-Safi (Byzantine and Islamic Zoora) in Jordan, we apply the CIDOC CRM ontology and its extension CRMtex, to represent epigraphic and archaeological information resulting from the study of funerary inscriptions in an interdisciplinary approach aiming at standardizing and integrating information in the field of cultural heritage. With this research work, we develop and propose a model to assist scholars in coding and documenting ancient inscriptions brought to light by archaeological research.
Academic research into the illicit trade in cultural objects has grown substantially over the last 50 years. Yet our understanding remains dominated by fragmentary evidence, repetitive methodologies, and one-sided narratives that can enable epistemic blind spots and sensationalised claims. Without a comprehensive understanding of the trade, how it has been studied, and by whom, such blind spots will continue to limit the development of effective countermeasures. This review provides an initial synthesis of English-language quantitative research on the trafficking and trade in antiquities, examining how this research has been produced, by whom, where, and with what methods. Using systematic searches of academic databases and key outlets, we identified 168 English-language studies that used quantitative methods. Beginning with the first identified source from 1983, this constitutes a relatively limited body of work across more than four decades. Findings show a small and siloed subfield: nearly half of publications are solo authored and co-author clusters are weakly connected. Methodological approaches have become more interdisciplinary and diverse over time, yet explicit engagement with research ethics remains rare. Most notably, first authors are overwhelmingly based in the Global North while empirical focus falls disproportionately on Global South contexts, with limited collaboration involving scholars located in the regions under study. The article demonstrates that research into the illicit trade in cultural objects remains shaped by Anglo-American paradigms. By mapping existing evidence and its gaps, we hope to foster more diverse and effective evidence-based countermeasures.
Historical buildings play a critical role in reflecting a society's past, culture, and collective identity. In recent years, Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM) has become a key digital approach for the documentation and management of historical buildings. Despite its growing importance, the research trends of HBIM remain insufficiently understood within the academic literature.To address this gap, this study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of HBIM research, examining journal articles and conference proceedings up to 2025 without time limitations, using the Bibliometrix package in RStudio. The analysis integrates publication trends, cluster analysis, and thematic mapping to explore the intellectual and conceptual development of the field. This approach provides more comprehensive and flexible data processing capabilities compared to other studies.Results indicate that HBIM research is predominantly shaped by technically oriented approaches focused on modelling, data acquisition, and digital documentation. This study highlights the existing imbalance between technological progress and the integration of theoretical, value-based, and governance-focused perspectives. It contributes to repositioning HBIM as an emerging socio-technical framework and identifies key directions for future research, particularly in relation to heritage conservation practice, guidelines and policy integration.
This article demonstrates how a multimodal digital methodology combining LiDAR, UAV photogrammetry, topographic survey, and 3D reconstruction can generate new archaeological insights from protohistoric Breton fortifications. Focusing on the sites of Castel-Coz, Castel-Meur, and Kerv & eacute;dan, we detail a comprehensive digitization workflow designed to address specific research questions regarding structural organization, phasing, and spatial function. At Castel-Coz and Castel-Meur, the integration of LiDAR (Litto3D) and photogrammetric data enabled the automatic detection of dwelling hollows and clarified the organization of internal spaces, surpassing the limitations of traditional surveys. At Kerv & eacute;dan, a phased 3D reconstruction based on archival plans, stratigraphic sections, and geophysical data allowed the visualization of several fortification states, challenging previous phasing hypotheses. Furthermore, we integrate generative AI-assisted visualization to bridge the gap between technical 3D models and realistic architectural perception, providing immersive ground-level views that highlight the monumentality of the defensive systems. The results underscore the critical role of multimodal digitization in protohistoric archaeology-not only as a recording tool but as an analytical instrument for spatial analysis, hypothesis testing, and the refinement of site narratives. We conclude by discussing the methodological implications of this approach, including the potential and limitations of AI-generated imagery for research and public dissemination.
Cultural heritage (CH) is a unique and irreplaceable asset that reflects the historical identity of nations. As traditional documentation methods often fall short in accuracy and efficiency, integrating modern photogrammetric technologies has gained relevance. This study presents a comprehensive approach to 3D documentation of the Alavian Dome, a 12th-century Islamic architectural monument in Hamadan, Iran. Utilizing UAV photogrammetry and close-range photography, high-resolution spatial data were acquired through the Phantom 4 Pro drone and Nikon D3300 camera. Four aerial imaging modes-Double Grid, Mapping Orbits, Perimeter Horizontals, and Line Scan-captured the full exterior geometry, while handheld imaging documented the interior. The generated 3D model achieved high geometric accuracy and dense point cloud coverage, enabling detailed visualization of decorative features such as bas-reliefs and inscriptions. This integrated method demonstrates a robust and accessible solution for digital preservation, supporting future archaeological analysis, conservation, and heritage management.
Fish skin garments made by Native communities of the Lower Amur River in eastern Siberia were created by processing salmonid and carp species into wearable materials. These artefacts were dyed with pigments derived from local plants, minerals, and organic sources. Preserved in museum collections, their current condition reflects sometimes material degradation, discolouration, and past conservation treatments, limiting access to their original chromatic and surface properties. Digital reconstruction provides a method to examine these garments beyond their present state. While threedimensional modelling and image processing have been applied in digital heritage, colour reconstruction remains limited for organic materials such as fish skin, particularly where documentation about provenance and processing methods is incomplete. This study reconstructs the colour and surface properties of a nineteenth century Nanai fish skin robe held at the Penn Museum. The methodology combines object-based research, historical dyeing reconstruction, high-resolution image sampling, AI-assisted 3D modelling, and CLO pattern-based garment simulation. Colourimetry supports the extraction of chromatic value of pigments, enabling accurate simulation of textures and tones. Ethnographic research informed the reconstruction of indigo, and alder bark pigments. The process was conducted in collaboration with a Nanai knowledge holder, whose input guided material interpretation. The study aims to reconstruct colour values from fish skin surfaces, simulate material behaviour through threedimensional modelling, and integrate computational reconstruction with community knowledge.
