Ash dieback, together with altered hydrological conditions and limited natural regeneration, threatens narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl) forests in Croatian floodplains. This study evaluated whether individual-tree attributes and stand structure were associated with crown damage and short-term radial-growth resilience. Ten stands in the middle Sava River floodplain were sampled using 41 circular plots. Stand density, basal area, and growing stock were estimated at the plot level. Diameter, height, crown dimensions, and crown damage were assessed on a subsample of 154 trees, from which increment cores were also collected. Ring-width measurements were used to calculate the Resilience index (Rs3/6). Relationships among variables were evaluated using linear correlation and one-way analysis of variance was used for testing differences in crown damage and resilience index between categorized tree and stand variables. Mean crown damage was 24.4%, while the mean Rs3/6 value of 0.90 indicated that radial growth had generally not returned to its previous level. Crown damage was negatively correlated with growth resilience. Trees in the 15–30 cm diameter class and the 21–40-year age class showed the lowest crown damage and highest resilience. The most favorable values of both indicators occurred at stand densities of 800–1200 trees ha−1, while crown damage was lowest at basal areas below 15 m2 ha−1. Although the observed associations were moderate and should not be interpreted as causal effects, the combined use of crown condition and radial-growth recovery can support the identification of vigorous trees and inform adaptive, site-specific management of declining narrow-leaved ash stands.
The European chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is under increasing threat from the combined impact of the emerging fungal pathogen Gnomoniopsis castaneae, the causative agent of chestnut brown rot, and the Asian chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus), which is one of the most destructive invasive pests in chestnut orchards. This study evaluated the efficacy of endotherapy involving the injection of a multispecies Trichoderma-based biocontrol formulation (T. harzianum, T. viride, and T. atroviride) into the trunks of trees in two chestnut-growing areas in Tuscany, Italy. Independent trials were conducted using either a single spring application or two applications (autumn and spring) to assess the effects on brown rot, the gall wasp and its parasitoid, Torymus sinensis, as well as on major nut-feeding insects. Trunk injection significantly reduced the incidence of G. castaneae from 48.1% to 61.7% in untreated trees to 16.6%–28.1% in treated trees. The double application strategy showed promising results compared to untreated trees: increased larval mortality of D. kuriphilus, reduced bud infestation, and enhanced parasitisation by Torymus sinensis. These results demonstrate that trunk-injected Trichoderma is an effective, environmentally sustainable tool for the integrated protection of chestnut, suppressing brown rot, and supporting the biological control of the Asian gall wasp simultaneously.
This study adopts the contingent valuation method (CVM), Logit model, and quantile regression to evaluate the compensation level of public welfare forests and identify the influencing factors of compensation standards from the perspective of forest farmers’ willingness to accept compensation. The results show that the forest farmers’ expected compensation standard ranges from 1034 to 1128 CNY·ha−1·year−1, more than three times the current official compensation standard. Based on forest farmers’ willingness to accept, the current forest ecological compensation level only reaches 30.6%–33.4% of the expected standard, which is insufficient to mobilize the enthusiasm of forest farmers for forest management and protection. Therefore, it is necessary to further raise the public welfare forest compensation standard and implement diversified compensation measures that adapt to the differentiated demands of forest farmers. In addition, analysis of zero-willingness samples reveals that poor policy cognition is the main reason for zero compensation bids among partial respondents, rather than the overall sample. A better understanding of ecological compensation policies can significantly promote farmers’ willingness to accept compensation, suggesting that targeted policy publicity should be strengthened to improve forest protection awareness and policy satisfaction among forest farmers. Furthermore, household age, annual household income, forestland area, forest management cost, and policy understanding degree are core factors affecting compensation willingness. Quantile regression results indicate that these influencing factors show heterogeneous effects at different compensation levels, which provides evidence for the formulation of differentiated compensation schemes. The robustness test and heterogeneity analysis further confirm the reliability of the research conclusions. This study provides a practical reference for governments to optimize forest ecological compensation policies, balance household welfare, and promote sustainable forest resource protection.
In the primary spruce-fir-Korean pine forest affected by historical windthrow, soil water-holding capacity shows complex spatial associations with forest microenvironment and soil physicochemical properties. However, its spatial variability and multi-factor hierarchical association pathways remain poorly understood. Taking the primary spruce-fir-Korean pine forest on a historically windthrow-affected site in the Liangshui National Nature Reserve, Xiaoxing’an Mountains, China as the research object, geostatistics and partial least-squares structural equation modeling were used to analyze the spatial pattern of topsoil (0–20 cm) water-holding capacity and its environmental association pathways. The results showed saturated, capillary and field water-holding capacities of topsoil exhibited moderate variability and strong spatial autocorrelation (all nugget to sill ratios < 25%), showing a patchy distribution. No significant direct association was detected between windthrow mechanical disturbance intensity and topsoil water-holding capacity. Bulk density (path coefficient = −0.685, p < 0.001) and soil porosity (path coefficient = 0.273, p < 0.001) had significant direct associations with soil water-holding capacity, whereas soil particle size distribution showed no significant effect (p > 0.05). Canopy structure and understory microclimate exerted indirect associations with soil water-holding capacity via soil structure; litter showed no significant associative effect (p > 0.05). These results indicate that soil water-holding capacity on the historically windthrow-affected site was not randomly distributed, but presented an ordered patchy pattern closely related to in-plot micro-environmental factors.
Zelkova schneideriana Hand.-Mazz. is an ecologically and economically valuable tree species in China, but its sensitivity to low temperature restricts its use in colder regions. To identify genes and pathways associated with chilling responses, we combined physiological screening, full-length transcriptome construction, Illumina RNA-seq, and time-ordered gene co-expression network analysis (TO-GCN). Fifty seedling lines were evaluated after 7 d at 4 °C, and the line with the lowest relative electrolyte leakage (REL) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content was selected for transcriptome profiling at 0, 3, and 6 d of chilling treatment. RNA-seq detected 5875 differentially expressed genes. Most expression changes occurred by day 3 and were largely maintained on day 6. Pathway reconstruction showed contrasting dynamics between antioxidant-related systems: Flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis were progressively activated, whereas glutathione-related genes, particularly glutathione S-transferase family members, were broadly repressed. TO-GCN highlighted ZeF3H (Ze_transcript_14112) as a late-stage hub associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis and ZeDRT102 (Ze_transcript_44427) as an early-stage hub linked to DNA damage repair and glutathione-associated genes. These results indicate that the chilling response in Z. schneideriana involves activation of flavonoid-based protection together with weakened glutathione-mediated redox regulation, providing candidate genes for functional validation and cold-resistance breeding. These insights provide a critical foundation for molecular breeding strategies that will ultimately facilitate the successful introduction and stable cultivation of this valuable species in northern temperate climates.
Mangrove replantation is widely implemented as a rehabilitation-oriented response to coastal degradation, yet many replanted stands remain poorly assessed after plantation. This study provides a preliminary dry-season post-plantation habitat characterization of an eight-year-old replanted Rhizophora mucronata stand at Sungai Ujung River, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its novelty lies in integrating vegetation structure, surface-active brachyuran taxonomic units, selected surface-water variables, and sediment texture within a single replanted stand where no baseline or long-term monitoring data were available. The final descriptive dataset included seven plots across three transects. Surface-active brachyurans and water-quality variables were recorded across five valid sampling occasions: three spring-tide and two neap-tide occasions. Because tidal period was a sampling-occasion-level condition and temporal replication was limited, spring–neap patterns were interpreted descriptively. Eight surface-active brachyuran taxonomic units comprising 676 individuals were recorded, dominated by Metopograpsus latifrons. Crab abundance, Shannon diversity, and water-quality profiles varied among occasions and plots. All 113 living mangrove individuals were R. mucronata, with established trees, visible seedlings, and scarce poles. Sediment texture ranged from sand-dominated to clay-rich substrates. These findings provide a structured reference point for future monitoring, but do not demonstrate replantation success, recovery trajectory, or functional recovery.
Seedling growth is an essential stage for the future growth of trees, and Paulownia is treated as a rapidly growing hardwood tree species with wide industrial application. There is a knowledge gap in the modeling and analysis of the seedling growth pattern of Paulownia hybrid clones under field nursery conditions. A total of 300 saplings belonging to 25 Paulownia hybrid clones (named PT1–PT25, 12 saplings per clone) were observed 16 times after flat stubble treatment, yielding 4800 records. After accounting for mortality under field nursery conditions, 118 saplings survived, resulting in 1888 valid records for model construction. Seven theoretical growth equations with clone-specific dummy variables were fitted using nonlinear mixed-effects models (NLMM) with an AR(1) correlation structure to account for the hierarchical structure of the repeated measurements. Among the seven candidate models, Hossfeld IV was selected as the optimal model for both ground diameter (AIC = 8250.62, RMSE = 1.47 mm, conditional R2 = 0.9892) and tree height (AIC = 15586.26, RMSE = 10.48 cm, conditional R2 = 0.9916). However, because the Hossfeld IV model lacks an analytical third derivative, the standard logistic model was adopted to calculate the biologically meaningful fast-growing period boundaries. PT24 exhibited the highest growth potential among all clones, with asymptotic maximum values of 86.76 mm for ground diameter and 490.00 cm for tree height. However, its low survival rate (25%, n = 3) limits its practical recommendation. In addition, height-to-diameter (H/D) ratio analysis revealed considerable variation among clones, ranging from 3.89 cm∙mm−1 (PT22) to 8.06 cm∙mm−1 (PT3). The H/D ratio showed no significant correlation with ground diameter A (r = 0.286, p = 0.166), but a significant positive correlation with tree height A (r = 0.660, p < 0.001). PT24 maintained a moderate H/D ratio (6.92) despite its superior growth, indicating favorable stem stability. PT6 (91.67% survival, moderate growth) represents a more robust alternative for breeding programs prioritizing establishment success. This study demonstrates that a dual-model strategy provides a robust framework for evaluating clone-specific growth potential and supports informed breeding decisions in Paulownia improvement programs.
Climate niches define species’ adaptive boundaries, forming a fundamental basis for understanding global patterns of plant diversity. However, existing assessments remain scale-limited or geographically confounded, leaving the complete picture of plant climate niches poorly understood. Here, we systematically evaluate the climate niches of 314,625 extant vascular plant species across a two-dimensional, orthogonal climate space defined by thermal and hydrological gradients, comparing how these niches diverge across plant growth and life forms. Our findings reveal that species richness peaks in warmer, central-to-right regions of climate space, whereas peripheral areas support far fewer species, indicating that few taxa adapt to extreme climatic conditions. Globally, most species exhibit intermediate niche breadths, with very few extreme specialists or broad generalists. Furthermore, both climatic niche breadth and positioning vary substantially across strategies. Across vegetative strategies, self-supporting woody taxa (trees and shrubs) as well as climbers and epiphytes generally maintain broader niches than herbs and subshrubs. In terms of niche positioning, herbs and subshrubs occupy cooler niches and, together with shrubs, show a general shift toward drier environments. Among life forms, annual therophytes and phanerophytes occupy the broadest climate spaces through different strategies. Specifically, phanerophytes and nanophanerophytes dominate warm and humid macroclimates, cold-tolerant hemicryptophytes shift heavily into colder climate space, and annual therophytes display strong drought adaptation by overwhelmingly occupying hyper-arid zones. These marked niche divergences among plant strategies advance our understanding of life-history adaptations and provide a crucial theoretical framework for predicting species vulnerability and guiding biodiversity conservation under future climate change.
Dryland shrub restoration is often assessed by vegetation recovery, yet belowground microbial organization remains less resolved. We analyzed bacterial 16S rRNA and fungal ITS amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) from four Caragana korshinskii plantations established 5, 10, 20 and 30 years before sampling. Within each plantation, five shrubs were sampled as within-plantation subsamples. Fine roots and rhizosphere samples were collected at 25–30 cm soil depth, while non-rhizosphere soils were collected at the same depth but 10 or 30 cm horizontally from the sampled root system. A soil-chemistry-matched subset defined a PCA-based edaphic axis (PC1 = 48.4%) that ordered the four sampled plantations and was associated with higher soil water content, lower electrical conductivity and lower total nitrogen and soil organic matter in the older plantations. ASV pools contracted from the soil to the rhizosphere and root compartments, indicating hierarchical filtering. Sample-level Bray–Curtis analyses showed strong microhabitat structuring, particularly for bacteria, while null-model analysis assigned most bacterial turnover to homogeneous selection (91.9%). Fungal turnover more often fell into the dispersal-limitation category (79.4%), but this ITS-based result should be interpreted cautiously. Rhizosphere candidate indicators and exploratory association-network summaries suggested differences among plantation age/site classes, including an apparent increase in retained associations in the 10-year plantation; however, these network comparisons are treated as hypothesis-generating because the network for each plantation age/site class was based on only five samples. Because each plantation age/site class was represented by a single plantation, plantation age is confounded with site, and all age-related patterns are interpreted descriptively within this chronosequence rather than as replicated temporal effects.
As the environmental sustainability of forest management has become an increasingly important consideration, incorporating environmental performance into timber harvesting operations has grown to be correspondingly critical. This shift is reflected in a growing move away from large-scale clear-cutting toward smaller-scale harvesting operations. To conduct such small-scale harvesting efficiently, mechanized systems have increasingly been introduced into practice, yet how these systems affect the soil environment relative to conventional harvesting methods remains insufficiently understood. In the Republic of Korea, where steep, mountainous terrain predominates, this knowledge gap is particularly consequential, as the conventional (chainsaw felling and excavator-based woodgrab extraction) system often produces spatially diffuse and severe surface soil damage. This study compared surface soil disturbances between conventional and small-scale mechanized (SSM) harvesting systems across three slope gradient classes (moderate, <20°; steep, 20–25°; very steep, >25°) at five harvesting units in the Republic of Korea. Disturbance was assessed at total of 2046 systematically distributed grid points using a four-class visual disturbance protocol, with continuous disturbance surfaces derived by inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation. The results indicate that SSM systems shift the pattern of disturbance rather than uniformly reducing it. On moderate slopes, SSM (grapple saw felling and clambunk skidding) reduced the proportion of severe, area-wide disturbance but concentrated deep rutting along fixed skid trails, producing significantly deeper ruts than the conventional system. On the steep slope, the SSM system pairing mechanized felling with swing yarder extraction substantially reduced both the extent and the severity of disturbance relative to the conventional system by eliminating in-stand machine travel during extraction. On the very steep slope, no paired conventional unit was available for comparison, but the SSM system using a small tower yarder resulted in a notably low level of surface disturbance. These findings suggest that the soil-protective benefit of SSM systems may depend on how machine traffic is distributed during felling and extraction, offering evidence to guide slope-specific system selection for environmentally sound timber harvesting.
Brown root rot disease (BRRD), caused by Pyrrhoderma noxium, creates a post-sanitation restoration problem where complete root excavation and soil fumigation are environmentally or operationally impractical. This retrospective observational study reconstructed archival records from an integrated management program at Shimen Reservoir, Taiwan, to characterize the field establishment and growth of Musa spp. as a candidate rapid-establishment component and Bischofia javanica as a potential long-term woody-canopy component. Across 15 management zones, the program planted 1045 B. javanica seedlings in 11 zones and 527 Musa plants in six zones. Four quarterly censuses recorded quarter-specific pooled alive-status proportions of 31.8, 31.1, 29.9, and 29.9% for B. javanica and 72.1, 70.4, 71.0, and 77.8% for Musa. Fixed monitoring cohorts of 95 B. javanica and 50 Musa documented continued growth among measurable individuals. Because plant groups and management zones were non-randomly allocated, no untreated controls were available, and plant-by-plant BRRD status was not systematically diagnosed, these results describe contrasting operational establishment trajectories rather than differential BRRD resistance. The records support ‘outpacing disease’ as a prospective restoration hypothesis—not a demonstrated pathogen-suppression or functional-restoration strategy—in which vegetation establishment may proceed while sanitation, monitoring, and selective woody re-establishment continue.
Mountain catchments integrate environmental gradients, disturbance legacies, and multiscale processes that shape how ecosystem functions vary across space and time. To better understand the role of these spatial processes, we analyzed whether ecosystem-function relationships in Patagonian headwater catchments are organized according to single multifunctionality gradients or are scale-dependent on ecosystem condition and structure. We fitted three expert-constrained Bayesian networks using field-measured ecosystem functions across three spatial resolutions: catchment (n = 12), forest clusters (n = 63), and forest plots (n = 175). Predictive performance varied strongly across scales and functions: at the catchment scale, firewood volume was best predicted (r = 0.79), whereas deadwood carbon stock, tree carbon stock, vascular richness, timber volume, and soil erosion showed negative predictive correlations (r = −0.14, −0.15, −0.33, −0.44, and −0.80, respectively). Specifically, at the forest-cluster scale, firewood volume, live tree carbon stocks, soil erosion, and deadwood carbon stocks were strongly predicted (r = 0.96, 0.81, 0.77, and 0.69). At the plot scale, firewood volume, tree carbon stock, deadwood carbon stock, and understory plant diversity showed the strongest local signal (r = 0.91, 0.67, 0.67, and 0.60). Bayesian networks revealed a recurrent positive wood–carbon structure linking tree carbon stock, firewood volume, deadwood carbon stock, tree carbon sequestration, and some soil responses. In contrast, understory plant diversity was more associated with local drivers such as elevation, canopy cover, slope, and tenure, and erosion control changed direction with scale and forest development stage. Findings show that monitoring should assess carbon- and wood-production-related functions together with biodiversity and soil-related functions across nested spatial scales, because trade-offs and synergies emerge as context- and scale-dependent relationships shaped by shared environmental and management drivers.
This study presents a systematic literature review combined with a bibliometric analysis of ecotourism within geoparks. A dataset of 194 scientific publications was retrieved from seven academic databases: Web of Science, Scopus, Dimensions, Nature Journals, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis, and CABI, covering the period 2010–2025. The study followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines to ensure methodological rigor and transparency. Automated procedures were employed, including an integrated R-based approach for bibliographic record merging and deduplication using an automated method, and an automated IF function-based screening process. The results reveal a growing trend in ecotourism-related research within geoparks. The most influential publications primarily focus on visitor motivations and preferences, ecotourism products and visitor experiences, and community-based ecotourism, as well as conservation, environmental education, and sustainable geopark management. While geotourism continues to occupy a central position in geopark development, the findings suggest that ecotourism can complement geotourism by promoting environmental responsibility, conservation awareness, community participation, and the broader sustainable development objectives of geopark territories.
Dieback of Quercus is a serious environmental and economic problem in the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean basin, and the main causal factor is infection by the oomycete Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. Reliable and rapid methods for evaluating host susceptibility are needed to support breeding and selection programs. This study developed and evaluated an in vitro pathogenicity assay for screening cork oak (Quercus suber L.) genotypes using both mycelial and zoospore inoculation methods. The effects of inoculum type and dose, symptom development, pathogen establishment, and disease progression were assessed, and the ability of the assay to discriminate among host genotypes was evaluated. Both inoculation methods consistently induced infection, producing characteristic root necrosis followed by aerial symptoms and plant death. Root necrosis became visible within two days after zoospore inoculation, and successful pathogen re-isolation from surface-sterilized roots confirmed tissue colonization within 24 h. Observations suggest that survival time and root necrosis length are useful indicators of disease progression. Genotype-related differences were detected in time-based variables, namely time to first symptoms and time to complete necrosis in the mycelial-suspension assay and survival time in the zoospore assay, whereas early root necrosis and growth variables did not differ significantly among the tested genotypes. Overall, these results support the use of the proposed in vitro protocols as short-term approaches for the preliminary assessment of genotype responses to P. cinnamomi, complementing greenhouse and field evaluations.
In urban green spaces, stand density and pruning jointly modulate canopy structure, plant resource allocation, and leaf physiological traits. However, their interactive effects on the spatial heterogeneity of canopy photosynthetic characteristics remain poorly understood, which hinders the development of low-carbon, high-efficiency management strategies for urban forests. In this study, 50-year-old camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl) plantations with three density gradients were investigated to disentangle the interactive effects between stand density and pruning. The results showed that stand density dominated the resource competition regime within the canopy. In low-density stands, mean canopy leaf carbon (C), nitrogen (N), chlorophyll concentration (Chl), maximum net photosynthetic rate (Amax), stomatal conductance (gsw), mesophyll conductance (gm), actual photochemical efficiency of PSII (ΦPSII), maximum Rubisco carboxylation rate (Vcmax), and maximum electron transport rate for RuBP regeneration (Jmax), were significantly higher than those in medium- and high-density stands. Most photosynthetic traits increased logarithmically with increasing light intensity in low-density stand, whereas they followed parabolic trends in medium- and high-density stands with depressed values observed in upper sunlit leaves. Pruning triggered a physiological compensatory response in remaining leaves, significantly enhancing canopy C, N, Chl, and photosynthetic parameters such as Amax, gsw, gm, and ΦPSII. Notably, the increments in canopy-averaged N, Chl, ΦPSII and Vcmax/Jmax following pruning were substantially greater in low-density stand than in medium- and high-density stands. Pruning predominantly regulated the spatial distribution of canopy photosynthesis. As stand density increased, pruning compensated for the insufficient photosynthetic capacity in the lower canopy, and decreased photosynthetic heterogeneity across canopy positions, but it failed to achieve targeted enhancements of whole-canopy photosynthetic potential. Concurrently, increasing stand density gradually shifted photosynthetic limitation from mesophyll to stomatal, and pruning further exacerbated stomatal limitation in the upper sunlit leaves of high-density stand. Consequently, high stand density weakened the responsiveness of photosynthetic traits to N. In addition, pruning significantly reduced nitrogen use efficiencies for Amax, gsw, gm, and Jmax, due to N redundancy in the low-density stand. This study advances the mechanistic understanding of how urban forest management optimizes within-canopy photosynthetic resource allocation, and provides scientific support for enhancing the carbon sink function of urban green spaces.
Environmental change can alter aboveground and belowground plant inputs, with consequences for soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling and their coupling. However, how soil C and N respond differently to root and litter removal, and which factors regulate these responses, remain unclear. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to quantify changes in soil C and N following root and aboveground litter (hereafter, litter) removal and to identify the factors associated with these changes. We found that (1) litter removal significantly decreased soil organic C (SOC), dissolved organic C, total N, microbial biomass N, ammonium N concentrations and nitrous oxide emissions by 11%–30%, whereas root removal increased nitrate N concentration by 88%; (2) the response ratios of microbial biomass C and N were not correlated under either root or litter removal, whereas those of total C and N concentrations were positively correlated; (3) the effects of root and litter removal on soil C and N varied with season and soil depth, with the strongest responses occurring in autumn and winter and in the surface soil layer (0–10 cm); and (4) these responses were moderated primarily by leaf type and, to a lesser extent, by ecosystem type, elevation, mean annual precipitation, soil properties and experimental duration. Overall, our results clarify how altered plant inputs affect soil C and N pools and identify the conditions under which these effects are strongest, thereby informing predictions of C and N cycling under global change.
Soil is one of the most important natural resources on Earth; it is crucial for maintaining ecosystem stability and human survival [...]
Post-transplant shock is a key barrier to seedling establishment in Mediterranean-type ecosystems, especially when plant species are selected without consideration of functional traits conferring drought resistance. In this study, we investigated the responses to soil water restriction after the planting of six native sclerophyllous species, with growth form and leaf habit of evergreen trees (Lithraea caustica, Quillaja saponaria, Escallonia pulverulenta, Peumus boldus), semideciduous (Colliguaya odorifera), and deciduous shrubs (Vachellia caven), in a Mediterranean-type climate site in Central Chile. Seedlings were outplanted with tree shelters on a fire-disturbed site and subjected to two contrasting watering regimes during summer (2 L−1 week−1 seedling−1 for 5 months versus no watering). We assessed growth, survival, gas exchange, and midday water potential one season after planting. Species differed markedly in their drought response strategies. Deciduous shrubs such as V. caven maintained high stomatal conductance and photosynthesis despite the relatively high water potential, whereas evergreen trees sustained lower water potential through pronounced stomatal closure. The highest survival (>80%) and height increments were observed in V. caven, Q. saponaria, and C. odorifera. In contrast, E. pulverulenta exhibited positive increments in height but medium survival (63%), whereas P. boldus exhibited the poorest survival (33%), indicative of low capacity to survive and successfully establish after dry summers in Mediterranean-type climates. The different strategies of the species to cope with the post-transplant shock and the harsh conditions of the planting site may guide the selection of appropriate species to guarantee the successful seedling establishment and to support the future restoration of degraded sites characterized by long periods of drought.
Climate change drives shifts in forest vegetation zones, and the major tree species of warm–temperate evergreen broad-leaved forests in South Korea are also expected to undergo changes in their potential distributions under future climate conditions. This study applied a Committee Averaging (CA) ensemble species distribution model to Quercus acuta, Machilus thunbergii, Quercus glauca, and Castanopsis sieboldii to project changes in their potential distributions under four Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5) across two future periods (2050s and 2090s). To compare interspecific differences in response more clearly, we applied a two-tier threshold scheme that distinguished potential habitat (agreement ≥0.6) from highly suitable habitat (>0.8), and we concurrently conducted a Multivariate Environmental Similarity Surface (MESS) analysis to assess predictive uncertainty arising from extrapolation into future climates. The CA ensemble models showed excellent predictive performance (AUC 0.947–0.989; TSS 0.837–0.943). For Q. acuta, M. thunbergii, and Q. glauca, potential habitat expanded consistently across all SSP scenarios, and highly suitable habitat shifted northward into parts of the central and Gangwon regions. In contrast, both the potential habitat and the highly suitable habitat of C. sieboldii contracted under most future scenarios. These results demonstrate that even species belonging to the same warm–temperate evergreen broad-leaved forest community can respond differently to future climate. The two-tier threshold scheme applied in this study was effective not only for assessing whether distributions expand but also for delineating and evaluating climatically stable core habitats. Although our findings need to be interpreted in light of the uncertainty associated with extrapolation into future climates, they can serve as useful baseline data for establishing climate-change-adaptive forest conservation and species-specific management strategies.
This study employed a mixed-methods design combining a survey of 167 social workers in Seoul and in-depth interviews with three social welfare experts to explore strategies for integrating forest welfare services into the social service system. The survey results showed a high willingness to participate in forest welfare services. Demand was high for psychological and emotional stability (29.3%) and recreation and leisure enhancement (26.0%). Among the expected benefits, stress relief and improvement of psychological health showed the highest response rate (38.9%), while guaranteed participation during working hours was identified as the most important support needed (51.5%). Expert interviews indicated that a legal and institutional foundation, evidence of service effectiveness, professional program development, and cooperation among relevant organizations are necessary for sustained service operation and integration into the social service system. Based on these findings, this study proposes four major strategies for service revitalization: establishing a legal and institutional foundation, securing policy and academic evidence, developing tailored service models reflecting target characteristics, and establishing inter-organizational cooperation. These findings provide baseline information for future pilot implementation, effectiveness evaluation, and institutionalization of forest welfare services for social workers.
