One challenge for species delimitation involves closely related species, characterized by both intra- and interspecifically variable morphologies, for which genetic information is not yet available. One such example is exhibited by agamid lizards of the genus Bronchocela. This group of conspicuously vibrant green lizards is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, with 15 recognized species. However, the geographic distributions of several named taxa have remained unclear because of the imprecise application of names in taxonomic summaries and faunal checklists. For more than a century, many authors have noted that a few species, often considered “widespread,” persist throughout nearly the entire range of the genus. This is particularly true for populations identified as Bronchocela cristatella sensu lato and, to a lesser extent, B. marmorata in the Philippines. In this study, we reassess the systematics and taxonomy of Bronchocela populations in the Philippine archipelago. Using multiple lines of evidence from molecular and morphological data, we uncover four distinct lineages of Philippine Bronchocela, all of which we interpret as being distantly related to B. cristatella sensu lato from Malaysia and Indonesia. We argue that these lineages should now be interpreted as Philippine endemic species. Given the strong congruence in molecular and morphological analyses, we now consider populations from the Luzon faunal region (including Catanduanes, Marinduque, Lubang, and Polillo Islands), Romblon (Tablas, Romblon, and Sibuyan Islands), and the West Visayas (Negros, Cebu, and Panay Islands) as B. marmorata. The nomenclaturally available name, B. philippina, is now designated to the unique lineage from the Mindanao faunal region. Additionally, we recognize two new, distinctive species from the Mindoro (B. carestiai) and Palawan (B. mallarii) faunal regions. Overall, our findings demonstrate how conspicuous and widely distributed species in Southeast Asia remain poorly understood, overlooked, and taxonomically unresolved. Hence, the taxonomic resolution of Bronchocela populations in the island archipelagos of Southeast Asia will greatly benefit from the urgent priority of determining which landmass the name “B. cristatella” applies.
We tested the effects of electrofishing exposure on the behavior of different life stages of captive-reared Missouri Ozark (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi) and Eastern (C. a. alleganiensis) Hellbenders, both of which are listed as state (Missouri) and federally (USA) endangered. All life stages were tested under controlled laboratory conditions, and 6-yr-olds were also tested in the field. Embryos exposed to higher voltages showed twitching during exposures, increased hatching difficulties, and morphological deformities. Hatchlings, which are typically sedentary, moved more during exposure to higher voltages than to other treatments. During exposure to higher voltages, free-swimming larvae were less active and spent more time twitching and being immobilized and were also less active immediately after exposures. Juvenile hellbenders (3-yr-old) exhibited a greater incidence of stress secretions, twitching, and immobilization during exposure to higher voltages and had delayed righting responses immediately after exposures. Older hellbenders (6-yr-old) spent more time in twitching and immobilization during exposure to higher voltages and had longer latencies to right and faster heart rates immediately after exposure to higher voltages. In both laboratory and field trials, shocked 6-yr-olds had a higher incidence of stress secretions than unshocked controls. Minimal behavioral differences persisted after 3–5 mo. Overall, although mortality was not observed in any treatment groups, exposure to typical electrofishing voltages resulted in negative effects on embryonic development and at least short-term negative effects on hellbender behavior.
We review literature on telemetry and movement of North American pitvipers (Viperidae: Crotalinae) to identify geographic and taxonomic biases in research; conduct meta-analyses using commonly reported spatial metrics; characterize best practices in methodology, reporting, and analysis; compare general patterns of movement and behavior across species; and suggest directions for future research in this field. We found large disparities across species and locations, with four rattlesnake species (Crotalus horridus, Sistrurus catenatus, C. oreganus, and C. viridis) accounting for more than half the total studies and very limited spatial ecology research outside of the United States and Canada. Several different metrics for movement distance and space use are reported in this literature, but perhaps the most useful for general comparisons are average distance moved per day for movement and both minimum convex polygons and a kernel density estimator for space use. Our meta-analysis revealed a modest relationship between body size and both movement distance and space use, with larger bodied species moving further and occupying larger home ranges. Nonetheless, a substantial amount of variation in these parameters is not explained by body size. Among the most reported spatial patterns across species were increased movement of adult males compared with females (particularly during the breeding season) and decreased movement of pregnant females compared with nonpregnant females; however, we discuss some apparent exceptions to these near-ubiquitous patterns. Spatial ecology studies also frequently reported aggregation behaviors for overwintering and gestation and commented on high degrees of site fidelity, underscoring the overarching impact of seasonal environmental conditions on pitvipers in temperate climates. Future research might focus on neglected Mexican species, social behavior, and use of new technology (global positioning system trackers, accelerometers, tracking drones, and videography) to continuously monitor individuals.
We redescribe the external larval morphology of 10 of the 12 recognized species of Phyllomedusinae frogs in the genus Pithecopus, provide the first description for Pi. araguaius, and examine their buccopharyngeal and musculoskeletal anatomy of Pithecopus. We also review the literature on larval morphology across Phyllomedusinae and incorporate previously unpublished data for species of Callimedusa, Hylomantis, Phasmahyla, and Phyllomedusa to explore the evolution of larval traits within a phylogenetic hypothesis for the subfamily. Our results reveal putative synapomorphies for Hylomantis, Phasmahyla, and Pithecopus, with an anteriorly positioned oral disc identified as a homoplastic, nonunique synapomorphy for Pithecopus. Within this genus, Pi. centralis is characterized by a distinctive combination of a slightly developed posterior margin of the internal nares and absence of papillae in the buccal roof arena that is not defined, whereas Pi. megacephalus is uniquely defined by the insertion of the m. suspensorioangularis on the upper medial portion of the muscular process of the larval cranium. These traits help distinguish these two species from the morphologically similar Pi. ayeaye and Pi. oreades, whose adult phenotypes are nearly indistinguishable. Additionally, autapomorphic features were identified for Pi. palliatus, Pi. aff. rohdei, and Pi. rusticus, reinforcing the utility of larval morphology in species differentiation and inferences of character evolution. Our findings underscore the taxonomic and systematic relevance of larval traits in Pithecopus, particularly where adult morphology fails to provide diagnostic resolution. They also highlight the importance of integrating developmental, anatomical, and phylogenetic data to refine species diagnoses and understand evolutionary relationships across Phyllomedusinae. The continued study of larval morphology fills gaps in our understanding of phenotypic evolution and may illuminate the ecological and functional drivers shaping larval diversity in this clade.
Wildfires are progressively consuming more low-and middle-elevation shrublands and woodlands in the Mojave Desert in the southwestern United States, raising concern about the effects of wildfire on Mojave Desert Tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) and their habitat. The aim of this study was to compare the thermal quality of unburned habitat with habitat that burned once in 2005 to assess the mechanistic impact of wildfire on Desert Tortoise thermal ecology. Operative temperature models were used to calculate daily indices of thermal habitat quality on the ground surface, to determine the number of available hours during which tortoises could achieve their preferred body temperature, and to evaluate the thermal suitability of microhabitats in burned and unburned habitat in years following wildfire. We found that the thermal quality index was similar between burned and unburned habitat, but unburned habitat was more thermally heterogeneous and facilitated longer activity periods for tortoises. Even during the most thermally inhospitable times of the activity season, tortoises could be active on most days for at least 3 h in both habitats, likely exceeding the time needed by Desert Tortoises to acquire food resources while foraging on the ground surface, because tortoises normally spend the majority of their time in burrows. Shrub microhabitats provided tortoises with more potential time to be active within their preferred body temperature range than did microhabitats with no shade. Belowground thermal quality in burned and unburned habitats, assessed by recording temperatures in burrows with different types of shrub cover, were similar regardless of whether live or dead shrubs were present near the burrow mouth. We found no difference in the percentage of time tortoises in burned and unburned habitat were able to achieve body temperatures within their preferred range, but minimum body temperatures were lower in burned habitat and the range of achievable body temperatures was greater. Given that tortoises are imprecise thermoregulators, the small magnitude difference observed in minimum body temperature and body temperature range is likely not of great physiological consequence. Results from this study suggest that few additional restoration efforts may be needed for tortoises to thermally exploit once-burned habitats in some areas for several years following wildfire, but changes may occur over longer time periods and differences may exist among sites or at sites that burn multiple times.
