Agency, or the capacity for acting and exerting control, has been identified as a primary affordance of virtual reality (VR) for learning but has not yet been well-studied. In this study, we explore data derived from a larger study on collaborative learning in a VR environment to investigate how varied interactivity impacts sense of agency and subsequently whether agency is associated other affective dimensions of learning and learning outcomes. Factor analysis revealed two distinct constructs in assessing agency, over the VR and over their learning experience. Although the study conditions encouraged varied forms of interactivity, treatment conditions did not predict either agency construct. Results showed that both agency constructs were correlated with positive experiences in the VR. Moreover, we found that learning agency is linearly, negatively associated with learning outcomes. We find VR agency has a non-linear association. We discuss the implications of these findings in better understanding the complex relationships between VR design, learners' experiences of them, and how they affect learning. While more control over the environment may distract learners from retaining content, sense of agency may be important for engaging affective dimensions of learning.
Drones is an emerging technology in education. Research has shown that their use has positive effects on student learning, especially in STEM education. Although the number of studies on their use is increasing, however, research on their acceptance in STEM education is lacking. The aim of this study is to propose a model of acceptance of First Person View (FPV) drones and to examine the factors that affect in-service teachers to use these drones with their students in STEM activities. The FPV drones were chosen among the different types of drones due to their special characteristics and affordances (i.e., presence, bird's-eye view and first-person view). The research model of acceptance proposed is based on TAM and the following variables: facilitating conditions, perceived enjoyment and perceived affordances. The study involved 64 in-service teachers who interacted with the FPV drone in a STEM scenario. The quantitative results showed that teachers had positive perceptions about the use of FPV drones in STEM activities in their teaching. Another important finding of this research is that the research model explained 56.3
Presence is an important concept in Extended Reality (XR) learning environments. Although there are clear definitions and several tools for measuring presence in Virtual Reality, there is no clear definition of presence in Augmented Reality (AR) and limited tools for its measurement. The aim of this pilot study was to propose a new tool for measuring Presence in AR called "Presence in Augmented Reality Questionnaire" (PARQ) and test its content validity and internal reliability by means of a sample of undergraduate students (N = 145) that interacted with an AR application on two different devices: Magic Leap 1 AR Glasses and a smartphone. A secondary aim was to compare the presence levels of each device. The initial version of PARQ consisted of four factors: realness, interactivity, non-mediation, and engagement with a total of 15 items. The content validity of PARQ was assessed by 10 experts in the field of XR in education and was found adequate. Nevertheless, to enhance the internal reliability of the factors, five items were removed, resulting in a revised version comprising three factors: realness, interactivity and engagement. The results from the revised tool showed that AR glasses generated a greater sense of presence compared to the smartphone. Additionally, the majority of students favored AR glasses over the smartphone. Overall, this was an initial attempt to develop and evaluate a new tool for measuring presence in AR, which requires further refinement and more comprehensive empirical evaluation.
The impact of VR transition spaces on learning measures such as engagement, time in learning environments, and memory retention is a key area for study. While existing research often focuses on bounded VR environments, few studies evaluate transition spaces in VR learning contexts. This study fills that gap by assessing how the presence and placement of transitions influence engagement and memory retention. In our study, participants were divided into four groups-No Transition, Transition-In, Transition-Out, and Transition-In-and-Out-and assessed on performance in a VR learning task. Results showed a clear advantage in memory retention and engagement for groups experiencing transitions before learning. These findings highlight the potential for strategically placed VR transition spaces to serve as cognitive primers, preparing learners for more effective information processing and retention. Future research should expand on these results by exploring diverse content, broader learner demographics, and additional learning measures including critical thinking and long-term retention.
A growing body of research on extended reality (XR) interventions for neurodivergent individuals, particularly those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), has begun to advocate for a shift from a deficit-based model to a more inclusive, neurodiversity-affirming framework. Early studies focused primarily on leveraging virtual reality (VR) to address social communication challenges, but contemporary approaches have begun to broaden their scope to prioritize sensory, cognitive, and emotional needs of neurodiverse users. This paper explores this evolution of XR interventions, emphasizing the importance of co-design methodologies that actively involve autistic individuals in the development process. A transdiagnostic perspective is advocated, recognizing shared challenges across neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism, ADHD, and sensory processing disorders. This inclusive approach allows for the development of adaptable XR environments, enhancing accessibility and promoting skill generalization. The paper argues for a paradigm shift in XR research, calling for a focus on empowering neurodiverse individuals through customization, flexibility, and immersive features tailored to their strengths. Ultimately, the paper highlights the ethical imperative of centering neurodiverse voices and advancing inclusive research agendas that prioritize autonomy, well-being, and long-term support for neurodivergent populations.
