This study presents the development of a three-dimensional finite element model for simulating the fire behavior of prestressed glued-laminated timber. The finite element model, based on experimental data and the recommendations of Eurocode 5, accounts for the temperature-dependent evolution of the wood’s physical and mechanical properties. It enables a realistic prediction of the residual load-bearing capacity and post-fire structural behavior of timber beams following fire exposure and cooling to ambient temperature and has been validated through simulations of full-scale fire tests reported in the literature. Despite advances in numerical modeling, the fire behavior of such structures has been subject to only limited numerical investigations, with most studies being experimental or analytical. In this context, the proposed model provides a robust numerical tool capable of accurately analyzing fire performance and identifying char formation zones. The calculated temperature profile at the fire-exposed surface closely matches experimental results, and the temperature trends at different beam depths show only minor deviations from measurements. Furthermore, the maximum deviation between the predicted and measured char layer thickness after 60 min of fire exposure is approximately 4.4%, demonstrating the model’s accuracy in reproducing thermomechanical transfers within wood under higher temperatures. These results confirm that the model can reliably predict both the temperature distribution and char formation in prestressed glued-laminated timber beams during fire exposure.
Smoke movement and accumulation during building fires remain a dominant life-safety threat, as tragically demonstrated by recent large-scale incidents such as the 2025 Kartalkaya hotel fire. Beyond obstructing visibility, smoke rapidly degrades breathable air quality, directly constraining evacuation and firefighting effectiveness. To mitigate these risks, smoke management and smoke control systems implemented through natural, mechanical and hybrid ventilation configurations are widely employed to regulate smoke stratification and preserve tenable conditions. This review provides a comprehensive and critical synthesis of smoke ventilation systems, examining their classification, design principles and operational performance across diverse building typologies. International regulatory frameworks, including EN 12101, NFPA 92 and ISO 21927, are analysed alongside performance-based design methodologies, advanced modelling tools and emerging control strategies such as artificial intelligence, sensor-driven automation and digital twins. Particular attention is given to the interaction between ventilation performance, evacuation dynamics and system resilience under variable environmental and operational conditions. Unlike conventional reviews that primarily catalogue technologies or standards, this study reframes smoke ventilation as a governing life-safety system that directly defines Available Safe Egress Time through its coupling with pressure zoning, smoke stratification stability and adaptive control logic. By positioning smoke ventilation at the core of performance-based fire safety design, the review clarifies application boundaries, identifies scenario-dependent optimisation challenges and highlights pathways for integrating intelligent control within regulatory-compliant frameworks. The findings support a shift from prescriptive system selection towards context-specific performance optimisation, providing actionable insights for researchers, engineers and policymakers engaged in the development of resilient and adaptive smoke ventilation strategies.
This study investigates the venting behavior of compressed natural gas from passenger vehicle fuel tanks through temperature-triggered pressure relief devices at full capacity (200 bar). Experimentally measured mass loss rates were calculated to provide gas source boundary conditions for compressed natural gas dispersion modeling and to support evaluation of methods for predicting gas flow from pressurized systems in accidental releases. Using air as a venting gas, near-field flow patterns were qualitatively analyzed, revealing four characteristic regimes: (1) air entrainment from behind the vehicle, (2) left rear wheel recirculation, (3) forward-directed flow under the car, and (4) right rear wheel free jet. These regimes were confirmed in a full-scale vehicle fire test, demonstrating the relevance of the observed flow patterns for real fire scenarios and providing an experimentally supported framework for hazard assessment and risk evaluation of accidental compressed natural gas release.
This study examines fire incidents attended by Merseyside Fire and Rescue Service during the Bonfire Night period, 5th November (2015-2024), analysing the circumstances, patterns, and trends of such incidents. In particular, anti-social behaviour fires, deliberate property fires, firework incidents, and violence at work incidents were examined. Anti-social behaviour fires declined from 2016, firework incidents from 2019, and violence at work incidents from 2018, but all subsequently increased in 2024. Deliberate property fires also declined from 2016 onwards. Statistically significant increases occurred on 5th November for firework incidents, 5th and 6th November for anti-social behaviour fires, and 30th October and 5th November for deliberate property fires and violence at work incidents. There was a strong link between the level of deprivation and the number of anti-social behaviour, deliberate property fires, firework incidents, and violence at work incidents over the period studied.
This study addresses the failure risk of carbon fiber reinforced polymer cable anchorage systems during bridge deck tanker fires. Through numerical simulation, the most unfavorable temperature-rise curve was established. Experimental validation assessed the temperature response of the load transfer medium and the protective efficacy of three types of fire-resistant materials. Results indicate that at 2 m/s wind speed, the most hazardous thermal profile occurs 1 m directly above the tanker's roof surface. Epoxy-based load transfer medium presents anchoring failure risks beyond 123 degrees C, with temperature gradient attenuation dependent on material thermal properties. Comparative analysis indicates that the fireproof coating-insulating cement composite system provides superior protection compared with single-layer high-silica needle-punched felt. To ensure the carbon fiber reinforced polymer anchoring system maintains 3-h fire resistance integrity, the minimum protective configuration requires either 300-mm high-silica felt, 75-mm insulating cement, or a 2.38-mm fireproof coating.
