This study investigated the effects of spaced versus massed practice on the deliberate learning of English opaque idioms across different second language (L2) proficiency levels. A total of 199 Iranian EFL learners at different proficiency levels were taught 40 opaque idioms under either spaced (distributed over 5 days) or massed (concentrated in two sessions) conditions. Learning outcomes were measured through immediate, short-delayed (12 days), and long-delayed (100 days) cued-form and meaning-recall posttests. Results showed that while massed practice led to better immediate recall for the low-proficiency learners, spaced practice resulted in superior long-term retention for mid- and high-proficiency learners. These findings underscore proficiency as a critical boundary condition of the spacing effect within a memory-scheduling framework, suggesting that while massed practice supports initial encoding for learners with limited L2 resources, spaced practice facilitates durable retention for those with established proficiency. The study findings extend spacing effect to multiword expressions and offer pedagogical insights into adaptive vocabulary instruction tailored to learner proficiency.
Previous studies revealed the effectiveness of reading–writing continuation tasks in language learning, however, research optimizing these continuation tasks remains in its infancy. This study extends the existing literature by exploring whether the integration of collaborative learning with continuation tasks enhances both writing quality and attitude. The study employed a quasi-experimental design with 91 Chinese senior high school students learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Participants were assigned to two tasks: a collaborative continuation task and an independent continuation task. Results showed that (a) collaborative continuation tasks significantly improved participants’ writing quality, especially in terms of overall scores, fluency, and complexity, although writing accuracy remained unchanged; and (b) collaborative continuation tasks positively influenced participants’ writing attitude, significantly improving their writing preference, writing perception, and writing process, though these gains appeared to take somewhat different forms across proficiency levels. These findings yield important pedagogical implications for EFL writing instruction.
Grounded in Control-Value Theory, this study tested a moderated mediation model to examine the interplay between perceived teacher enthusiasm, foreign language emotions (enjoyment and boredom), language mindsets, and classroom engagement. Data were collected from 1,193 Chinese university students learning English as a foreign language via questionnaires. The results, analyzed using multi-group structural equation modeling, revealed that perceived teacher enthusiasm functioned as an antecedent whose positive relationship with engagement was significantly mediated by learners’ emotions. While the promotive pathway via enjoyment dominated the model, the protective pathway via boredom mitigation was confirmed as a secondary mechanism. Furthermore, this mediation was moderated by language mindsets: growth-mindset learners appeared internally driven, showing a significantly stronger translation of enjoyment into engagement. In contrast, fixed-mindset learners were more externally regulated, relying more heavily on the teacher’s enthusiasm to sustain engagement and mitigate boredom. This study advances the field by moving from universal trends to identifying the boundary conditions of emotional contagion, demonstrating that the role of teacher enthusiasm is contingent on students’ internal belief systems.
This study investigates the impact of rank-based versus score-based reward systems on task-induced emotions and writing performance among young second language (L2) writers, in light of their achievement goals. Participants were 235 Chinese secondary English-as-a-foreign-language students. They completed an achievement goal questionnaire and were assigned to either a rank-based reward, score-based reward, or no-reward condition. Following an English writing task, participants completed a post-task scale assessing their enjoyment and anxiety during the task. One-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) results demonstrated that the rank-based reward condition significantly enhanced task enjoyment and reduced anxiety. Structural equation modeling showed that both reward systems improved task performance, with rank-based rewards exerting a stronger positive effect than score-based rewards. Task enjoyment partially mediated the effect of rank-based rewards on writing performance. A series of multiple linear regression analyses indicated that the effect of achievement goals on emotional and performance outcomes was moderated by the type of reward system implemented. These findings yield pedagogical implications for leveraging motivational frameworks and fostering positive emotions in L2 task design from a positive psychology perspective.
Procrastination poses a significant barrier to L2 writing development. Though L2 writing anxiety is a well-established predictor, the potential protective role of positive affective factors remains comparatively underexplored. To our knowledge, no prior research has directly compared the relative predictive power of positive and negative affective-motivational constructs on L2 writing procrastination within a single model. This study investigated unique and joint contributions of L2 writing enjoyment, L2 writing anxiety, and willingness to write (WTW) in predicting L2 writing procrastination among EFL learners. It tested the proposition that fostering positive affect and motivation may complement anxiety reduction in accounting for procrastination. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 160 Iranian undergraduate EFL students. Validated scales measured procrastination, writing enjoyment (English Writing Enjoyment Scale), and writing anxiety (Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory). A newly developed scale assessed WTW, and its findings should be interpreted as preliminary pending further validation. A theoretically driven hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed. L2 writing enjoyment was the strongest negative predictor, uniquely explaining 21% of the variance in procrastination (Δ R 2 = 0.21, p < .001; f 2 = 0.27). WTW contributed a further 8% of unique variance (Δ R 2 = 0.08, p < .001; f 2 = 0.09), although its distinctiveness from enjoyment requires further empirical confirmation. In contrast, after accounting for enjoyment and WTW, L2 writing anxiety accounted for a smaller portion of unique variance (Δ R 2 = 0.02, p < .05; f 2 = 0.02). The full model explained 35% of the total variance. The findings suggest positive affect is a stronger statistical predictor of procrastination than negative affect in this context, though causal inferences cannot be drawn from this cross-sectional design. Pedagogically, the results indicate that effectively reducing procrastination may depend not only on mitigating anxiety but also on systematically cultivating writing enjoyment and motivational readiness, pointing toward a more balanced, strength-sensitive approach to L2 writing instruction.
