Vein or "milky" quartz is one of the most common raw materials used in lithic production all over the world. It is also one of the most difficult to analyze, given its large crystal structures and propensity to produce angular shatter during reduction. Archaeological and experimental research on quartz lithic production has been critical in developing analytical strategies to address these problems. This research contributes to these debates in presenting an assessment of how well quartz assemblages produced by economically distinct Early Holocene foragers and Later Holocene agro-pastoralists at Kakapel Rockshelter, western Kenya can be typologically and metrically distinguished from one another. The study finds that major economic differences between these groups manifest clearly in tool typologies and core morphologies, but are not as evident in any aspects of flake debris. This suggests that quartz constrains operational sequences, possibly reducing our ability to detect meaningful variation in the archaeological record.
Cultural evolution has been a central topic in research addressing interactions between Mesolithic groups and Neolithic populations in Europe, commonly explored through of material culture such as ceramic decoration, personal ornaments, and geometric microliths. This study focuses on the experimental characterization of the factors that promoted cultural evolutionary processes in geometric microliths, specifically assessing the effects produced by different transmission mechanisms under distinct learning models. To this end, morphometric variation generated during the replication of these projectile forms was quantified using two experimental designs: linear transmission chains and constant groups. Our results complement previous studies that have examined cultural evolutionary dynamics through computational simulations and provide an empirical framework for testing models of cultural change in prehistoric contexts. By grounding these processes in experimentally derived morphometric variability, this study offers a basis for evaluating how different learning strategies shape the transmission, maintenance, and transformation of lithic technologies over time.
The Middle Berach Basin, located on the eastern margin of the Thar Desert, preserve several Acheulean sites with cleaver-rich assemblages. The criteria for the typological classification of cleavers remain ambiguous and vary across different studies. Furthermore, factors governing variability within and between these tool types remain debated, resulting in several competing hypotheses. This study measures cleaver typological and technological diversity using 104 specimens from 36 Palaeolithic localities. The results reveal a strong preference for end-struck flakes used as blanks (72%) and predominant reliance on quartzitic sandstone (70.19%). Refinement index values (0.407) indicate intensive secondary flaking and structured edge modification, suggesting standardized blank selection and controlled reduction strategies. These patterns point to technological responses shaped by raw-material constraints and landscape dynamics, while also implying hominin behavioral flexibility. Comparitive analysis with Acheulean assemblages from South Asia, Africa, and Europe situate the basin within broader Pleistocene trends in lithic variability and adaptive strategies.
This study examines the side-blow technique, a significant component of the chipped stone industry at the Late Neolithic settlement of Hakemi Use, from technological, typological, and functional perspectives. A total of 266 obsidian artifacts were analyzed; including 164 cores for side-blow blade-flakes and 102 side-blow blade-flakes. Morphometric data, microscopic use-wear analyses, and experimental replication demonstrate that the technique represents a standardized and controlled flaking strategy. The results show that obsidian blades were transformed into small, sharp, and functional units with minimal modification. Use-wear traces, particularly on the cores, indicate contact with soft organic materials, suggesting use in plant processing or similar activities. Experimental observations further reveal that the method is rapid, controlled, and easily applied without requiring advanced knapping skills. Overall, the findings suggest that the side-blow technique reflects deliberate, efficient, and economically conscious raw material management and production organization.
This study examines a Mesolithic quartz assemblage from B & ouml;ksj & ouml;torp, Kolm & aring;rden, Sweden, and evaluates the potential of an experimentally developed hybrid use-wear approach for extracting archaeological insights from a limited lithic dataset. The study integrates high-powered use-wear analysis, metric striation analysis, spatial intra-site distribution, and Minimal Analytical Nodule Analysis (MANA) to reconstruct site activities and assess tool use patterns. A majority of utilized edges (84.62%) aligned with experimentally established damage groups, while a subset (15.38%) deviated, suggesting that factors beyond material properties, such as transitional wear states and post-depositional alterations, may influence wear formation. The spatial distribution of utilized artifacts indicates distinct activity areas, with one cluster reflecting a specialized field camp for hide processing while another represents short-term, opportunistic raw material exploitation. By demonstrating the applicability of a structured and replicable use-wear analysis for quartz artifacts, this research contributes to methodological advancements in lithic analysis.
Despite decades of replicative experiments, the fundamental question "how long did it take to make an Acheulean handaxe" remains poorly understood. Archaeologists routinely base influential Pleistocene behavioral theory on lithic-related time budget considerations, so it is important to accurately understand their possible manufacturing costs. Here, we synthesize data from 227 handaxes manufactured by experienced, apprentice, and novice knappers. We record the duration of, and number of flake removals associated with, each handaxe, along with the duration of flake removal intervals and diverse covariate data. Experienced individuals were quicker, displayed briefer flaking intervals, and often removed fewer flakes, while inexperienced individuals were comparatively inefficient in multiple ways. Social environment, final handaxe form, and whether a target-shape was followed also impacted data, while handaxes produced under time pressure reveal the technologies' expediency potential. Handaxe manufacturing costs are, therefore, highly context dependent, but were likely lower for Acheulean hominins than past work suggests.
Lithic miniaturization is a widespread and technologically diverse phenomenon documented across the Old World during the late Late Pleistocene. However, its specific technical manifestation in South China remains poorly understood. The newly discovered Shanghu site provides critical insights into this question, preserving an abundant lithic assemblage dating to similar to 26,000 years ago, within the cold phase of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2. The assemblage, rich in miniaturized quartz artifacts and predominated by diversified freehand knapping strategies, reflects significant regional diversity of miniaturized lithic assemblages in South China during MIS 2. This study presents an in-depth analysis of the potential relationship between the miniaturized production at Shanghu and raw material, as well as the climate. We suggest such miniaturization at Shanghu cannot be fully attributed to raw material properties alone, and may also be related to the technological response to adapt high-mobility subsistence strategy in the open environments of MIS 2.
The essence of lithic analysis is to interpret ancient toolmaker's cognition and behavior by finely reading stone artifacts. A direct approach involves identifying and recording removal attributes on artifact surfaces to reveal the knapping intentionality. This paper examines stone arrowheads from the Huayang site by analyzing the quantity, orientation, and sequence of removals to reconstruct their reduction sequence. Results show production typically involved three to five stages, with four being most common. Morphology was established during the initial three stages: Stage II was crucial for symmetry, while Stages I and III complemented each other and opposed to stage II. Reduction usually proceeded unidirectionally. Drawing on Binford's theory of technological organization, we argue that variations in reduction stages and morphology reflect diverse and flexible manufacturing strategies adapted to different hunting contexts and anticipated needs, rather than skill differences. This reveals the complex decision-making of Huayang craftsmen within a "curated" organizational system.
This study investigates the technological trajectory and reduction strategies of the lithic assemblage from layer III of Medzhybizh 1 (MIS 11). Low raw material utilization, opportunistic methods, and short operational sequences characterize the industry. Rather than being exclusively focused on flake production, the technological trajectory appears aimed at obtaining sharp-edged pieces from a variety of blank types. Detached flakes and pebble fragments were seldom subjected to further modification. The analysis of assemblage structure, toolkit composition, and cha & icirc;ne op & eacute;ratoire indicates that layer III of Medzhybizh 1 represents an atypical example within the context of MIS 11, highlighting the variability of core-and-flake industries in the European Lower Paleolithic.
Early Lower Paleolithic technologies include the first appearance of shaped stone balls (SSBs), such as spheroids and polyhedrons. Their long-lasting and widespread presence suggests they were an important cultural element of the Acheulian. This article addresses the long-standing question of how these implements were technologically produced. We present a detailed reconstruction of the shaping process, focusing on technotypes that characterize specific stages. These technotypes create distinct debitage products, and identifying them archaeologically may indicate intentional SSB manufacture. We then compare the experimental results with an archaeological assemblage from the site of 'Ubeidiya in the Levant. Our experimental - archaeological analysis suggests that certain waste products at 'Ubeidiya can be interpreted as spalls from SSB production. This evidence indicates that shaping SSBs involved a complex knapping sequence requiring advance planning, considerable skill, precision, and cognitive abilities higher than typically attributed to Lower Paleolithic hominins.
The Middle Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic transition is a pivotal period for cultural evolution and human adaptation, most recently archaeological remains indicate the human behavior diversity and distinct regional characteristics of technological development. In this study, we present lithics from a newly excavated Dashanpo site, located in the Chengdu Plain of the western Sichuan Basin - a region previously thought to have seen limited human activities during the Paleolithic period. Our results provide evidence of stable technological strategy characterized by the coexistence of different reduction sequences between 67 and 30 ka BP. This technological pattern supported the adaptation of hunter-gatherers to the warm and humid region, despite the challenges posed by geological and hydrological instability. By examining the lithic technological trajectory of the Sichuan Basin, the technological component of Dashanpo reflect a gradual technological and cultural revolution from the terminal Middle to the Late Paleolithic period in this region.
In ancient Egypt, since the Early Dynastic period (circa 3200 BC), large granite blocks were detached from quarries by cutting wide trenches around them, hammering the rock with hand-held stone pounders. The choice material for the pounders was dolerite, an igneous plutonic rock with similar mineralogical composition as basalt or gabbro. In the archaeological literature, the selection of dolerite for the pounders is attributed to dolerite being stronger and tougher than granite, based on qualitative empirical knowledge, including results of replicative pounding experiments. We have conducted a bibliographical search of the fundamental mechanical properties of granite and dolerite and, using concepts of the mechanics of fracture, we confirm in quantitative terms the suitability and efficiency of the extraction of granite with dolerite pounders by the ancient Egyptians.
Quartz, a widely used raw material in lithic production, is often overlooked in detailed studies, as it is frequently considered the last choice and is difficult to interpret. This article demonstrates, through lithic collections of Sudanese Holocene hunter-gatherers, the variability in quartz tool production. It explores (1) variability in the production, (2) production objectives, and (3) differences in lithic collections. First, a conceptual framework for raw material quality is presented and applied to quartz. Then, the geological properties and knapping characteristics of quartz are analyzed. Finally, using two archaeological collections from central Sudan, the study highlights how to interpret variations in lithic production. The goal is to emphasize the importance of different aspects that might influence lithic production and how to understand variability in lithic assemblages.
The research of Early Holocene sites in the Middle Nile region enabled the establishment of general trends in technological traditions, including the creation of stone tools, ceramic vessels and subsistence. Nevertheless, the task of ascribing the origins of subsequent Neolithic tradition to these earlier ones was a challenging endeavor. This in turn served to reinforce the prevailing theories concerning the external origins of pastoral communities. Recent research at the Letti Desert 2 site from the 8th millennium BCE has yielded a substantial collection of stone tools associated with alternately pivoting stamped pottery, as well as the earliest remains of domesticated cattle in this part of Africa. In contrast to the industry of groups referred to as regional Mesolithic, the use of quartz in this complex was sporadic. Despite the evident differences when compared with Neolithic funeral deposits, close parallels are observable in the raw material preferences and composite tool-making technology.
The Epipalaeolithic (ca. 23-9 ka calBP) assemblages of the North Caucasus are characterized by similar technological and typological characteristics, and contain a specific set of geometric microliths, including segments, trapezes, and rectangles, and rarer isosceles triangles and scalene triangles. We report results of a functional analysis of 243 geometric microliths comprising 155 segments, 58 rectangles, 20 trapezes, and 10 triangles from three Epipalaeolithic sites in the North Caucasus. This is the largest sample of geometric microliths functionally studied at a time in any Epipalaeolithic site or region. The results indicate geometric microliths typically functioned as inserts into composite tools made from wood, mostly projectiles and butchering tools. The study suggests correlation between specific types of geometric microliths and their use in projectile or butchering function. We conclude the modular design represents the main advantage of geometric microliths as easily exchangeable, ready-to-use functional units of a specific form.
This study examines lithic assemblages recovered from stele sites dating to the last two millennia in the Gedeo Zone of southern Ethiopia. 1,145 artifacts were collected through systematic test excavations and surface surveys at four sites. Using a techno-morphological framework, we analyze the composition, distribution, and technological characteristics of the assemblage. The study highlights the diversification of lithic tools and the dominance of blades and scrapers in later periods which are associated with temporal and functional changes. Additionally, the presence of bipolar reduction and cortex on some tools suggests multiple stages of lithic reduction and conservative resource use due to limited access to raw materials. Comparison of these assemblages across the region provides insights into broader patterns of lithic technology during the Late Holocene.
Traditionally, the appearance of the Fell V or "Ona" point in southernmost Patagonia, about 700 BP, was thought to mark the introduction of the bow and arrow. The older and larger Fell IV point was frequently considered a spear point. Here we use data from a previously reported firing experiment with Fell IV replicas to evaluate their possible use as arrowheads. Landmark-based geometric morphometrics describes blade-shape variations along replicas' use-lives, which then are compared with Fell IV and V archaeological points. The main results showed the high performance of Fell IV replicas as arrowheads and the similarity in shape variation among experimental and archaeological points. This suggests a possible earlier introduction of bow and arrow in southernmost Patagonia than commonly assumed, since major innovations in point design would not have been needed in the initial adoption of this technology.
This study examines the lithic assemblages from Tula'i to investigate the occupation styles and mobility strategies of the inhabitants during the Neolithic. We analyzed the lithic production patterns, focusing on retouch frequencies and lithic densities, to test hypotheses concerning occupation duration: whether Tula'i was a waypoint for village-based herders (short-term occupation) or a seasonal hub for nomads (long-term occupation). We applied Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to identify structure within the assemblages. Our results challenge traditional models by revealing a complex picture of tool production and use that does not conform neatly to the expectations of either highly mobile or sedentary groups. The insights derived from this research refine our understanding of Neolithic settlement practices in the region and reveal the nuanced behaviors of its past communities, suggesting a dynamic interplay between transient and prolonged stays at Tula'i.
In this paper the results of a detailed technological analysis of the lithic industry of OE udeghien (Belgium) are presented. The site is interpreted as a specialized flint knapping workshop focused on the production of regular (Montbani)blades in a non-local, good-quality flint intended for transport. Although technologically aligning with the Essart knapping method, typical of the Late Mesolithic in western Europe, the studied assemblage presents unique characteristics, which might point to the existence of regional and/or chronological differences. One such feature is the frequent use of the edge of massive flakes as debitage front. While this method was already in use incidentally from the start of the Mesolithic, it looks as if it became a general practice in the Late Mesolithic. Interestingly the same method, albeit with other objectives, is also observed within early farmer-herder assemblages from the nearby LBK Culture, hinting at possible transmission of technological knowledge between both communities.
