ABSTRACT The global astaxanthin market reached $1.69 billion in 2024, with 47% directed to aquafeed—yet the molecular basis of its absorption, metabolism, deposition, and storage in aquatic organisms remains incompletely resolved. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms will help optimize feed formulations, enhance astaxanthin bioavailability, and improve economic efficiency in aquaculture. This study investigates the absorption mechanisms of astaxanthin mediated by intestinal lipid transporters (SR‐B1, CD36, NPC1L1) and its utilization/deposition in different tissues and organs. It reviews the latest research progress on major absorption pathways, metabolic processes, and storage forms of astaxanthin in aquatic organisms, analyzes key factors affecting its utilization efficiency, and discusses potential future research directions to provide a scientific basis and theoretical support for aquaculture practices.
ABSTRACT Aquatic ecosystems are increasingly exposed to multiple abiotic stressors driven by climate change, environmental degradation, and anthropogenic activities. These stressors, including temperature fluctuations, dissolved oxygen depletion, pH alterations, ammonia accumulation, salinity changes, excessive stocking density, and contamination by inorganic and organic pollutants, can adversely affect fish physiology, growth, reproduction, immunity, and survival. The objective of this review is to synthesize current knowledge on threshold limits of major abiotic stressors relevant to fisheries and aquaculture systems and to evaluate their individual and interactive effects on aquatic organisms. The review highlights substantial interspecific variation in tolerance limits, greater sensitivity of early life stages, and the importance of considering multiple stressor interactions when defining sustainable environmental thresholds. Evidence indicates that rising temperatures can intensify contaminant toxicity, reduce dissolved oxygen availability, and alter salinity and ammonia dynamics, thereby increasing physiological stress in aquatic organisms. A comprehensive literature survey was conducted using major electronic databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and PubMed. Relevant peer‐reviewed research articles, review papers, and technical reports published over the past seven decades were identified using appropriate keywords and Boolean search operators. Understanding these threshold limits is essential for developing science‐based management strategies, improving fish welfare and production efficiency, and supporting adaptive policies for sustainable fisheries and aquaculture under changing environmental conditions. Interestingly, we anticipate that this review will serve as a valuable reference for researchers, aquaculture practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders involved in the sustainable management of aquaculture and fisheries resources.
ABSTRACT Integrated multi‐trophic aquaculture (IMTA), defined as the co‐production of species at different trophic levels, is conceptually appealing. By utilising complementary functions of different species, it holds opportunities for lower environmental impact, higher productivity, and increased profitability in comparison with conventional monoculture. However, whether those advantages materialise in practice remains unclear. Here we review available life cycle assessment (LCA) and cost–benefit analysis (CBA) studies of IMTAs to further the current understanding of environmental and economic performance. We find that, overall, LCAs conclude that IMTAs investigated have not been able to deliver on environmental promises, while CBAs generally find that IMTAs have both better financial performance and lower environmental externalities than monoculture equivalents. The main reasons for these contrasting findings include the nature of the systems assessed so far—often theoretical or experimental set‐ups with non‐optimised designs—combined with methodological choices in assessments. The findings of the review thus suggest that it is still unclear to what extent IMTA can deliver on its promises in practice, and that IMTA is no panacea for aquaculture but requires careful design to be effective for its intended use. Integrating robust LCAs and CBAs early in the development phase can help identify viable IMTA set‐ups based on key drivers of environmental and economic performance and, in this way, minimise the risks of misaligned practices. A first step towards realising the potential of IMTA is to carry out robust assessments that avoid key mistakes in both LCAs and CBAs, to which end we provide hands‐on recommendations for future assessments.
ABSTRACT There is growing interest in the co‐culture of macroalgae and filter‐feeding bivalves due to anticipated trophic benefits that may enhance the productivity of both organisms. Detritus from cultured macroalgae has the potential to supplement bivalve diets, yet few studies have directly examined this relationship in co‐culture systems. This review synthesizes findings from over 70 studies encompassing a broad range of macroalgae and bivalve species to assess the potential for macroalgal material to contribute to bivalve nutrition. No consistent patterns of macroalgal utilization by bivalves were found across regions, seasons, bivalve taxa, or macroalgal groups. In situ trophic assessments using stable isotopes and fatty acids produced divergent estimates of macroalgal dietary contributions, averaging 23.7% and 6.1%, respectively. Feeding studies of bivalves fed various forms of macroalgal material found that while relatively high rates of assimilation efficiency were measured for some bivalve species, the generally poor performance of bivalves in longer term feeding studies strongly indicated that the nutritional composition of the macroalgal material is insufficient, and/or that the macroalgal material contains compounds that actively inhibit bivalve growth. The majority of feeding studies found that regardless of the diet preparation method or species of macroalgae used, bivalve growth was reduced when macroalgae was incorporated at rates higher than a 25% replacement of feed dry weight. Overall, the findings point toward a generally limited potential for filter feeding bivalves to benefit significantly from co‐culture with macroalgae, although specific pairing of macroalgae and bivalve species may derive greater advantage from co‐culture.
ABSTRACT Aquaculture disease management is increasingly confronted by complex, multi‐factorial outbreaks that resist explanation under the conventional “one pathogen, one disease” framework derived from Koch's postulates. This review introduces syndromic convergence (SyCo) as a formal conceptual framework defining disease states in which climate‐driven environmental stressors, host immune competence, and interacting pathogen communities (pathobiomes) synergistically produce disease syndromes qualitatively distinct from the sum of individual pathogen effects. Drawing on documented outbreaks in salmonids, penaeid shrimp, Mediterranean marine species, and freshwater finfish, it is demonstrated that SyCo events, characterized by synergistic mortality exceeding 1.5× that of any single pathogen, cannot be adequately diagnosed or managed using single‐agent surveillance systems or reductionist intervention strategies. It is proposed a five‐criterion quantitative scoring matrix (0–10 scale; threshold ≥ 8) for SyCo classification, a tiered confidence‐rating system for climate‐virulence mechanisms, and a Syndromic Convergence Early Warning Index (SC‐EWI) integrating water quality, microbiome dysbiosis, behavioral signals, and stressor history into a composite farm‐level risk score. A three‐layer precision intervention framework, environmental mitigation, host immune priming (including nanovaccines and trans‐generational immune priming), and pathobiome‐targeted biologicals (RNAi and phage cocktails), is proposed as operationally aligned with the SyCo model. Seven priority knowledge gaps are identified, including validation of the scoring matrix against outbreak data, quantification of the EHP‐ Vibrio dose–response axis, characterization of maternal microbiome contributions to trans‐generational immune priming, and development of multi‐target dsRNA constructs for co‐infection scenarios. Collectively, this framework advances a transition from reactive, single‐pathogen pathology to predictive, convergence‐aware biosurveillance in global aquaculture.
Micro‐ and nanoplastics (MNPs), encompassing microplastics (MPs, diameters < 5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, diameters < 100 nm), threaten the health of farmed fish and the safety of aquatic products through contaminated water and feed. Nutritional modulation is recognized as a critical strategy to enhance fish resilience against environmental stressors, but targeted MNPs toxicity interventions are nascent. This review analyzed the distribution features of MNPs in aquatic environments and fish, and elucidated toxicity mechanisms—including reduced feed utilization, physical abrasion, oxidative stress, inflammation, and gut microbiota disruption. It also highlighted nutritional strategies to mitigate MNPs toxicity: macronutrient (protein and energy) optimization balances metabolism, micronutrient (vitamins, selenium, and zinc) fortification enhances antioxidant defenses, and functional additives (e.g., probiotics, astaxanthin, microalgae, etc.) reduce MNPs absorption, oxidative damage, and inflammation. Future research should focus on precision nutrition, toxicological mechanisms and repair, microecology modulation, and nano‐biotechnology solutions. This review aids in understanding the MNPs' impact on farmed fish, especially in developing effective nutritional mitigation interventions for sustainable aquaculture.
The aquaculture industry faces significant challenges from viral diseases, many of which are listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) as priority pathogens due to their impact on global finfish health and production. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the histopathology of key WOAH‐listed viral pathogens, including Koi Herpesvirus (KHV), Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV), Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV), Megalocytivirus, Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV), Spring Viremia of Carp Virus (SVCV), Salmonid Alphavirus (SAV), Tilapia Lake Virus (TiLV), and Epizootic Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (EHNV). We provide a detailed examination of organ‐specific lesions, emphasizing spleen, kidney, gill, and gut pathology across diverse host species. Despite an expanding literature, important gaps persist, including inconsistent lesion scoring methods, limited comparative histopathological analysis across species, and underutilization of integrated molecular and histological diagnostics. Addressing these gaps through harmonized scoring systems and integrative diagnostic approaches is critical for improving disease diagnosis, control strategies, and sustaining aquaculture productivity worldwide. This review serves as a comprehensive resource to inform future research and health management practices related to viral diseases in aquaculture finfish.
The development of aquafeed is indeed crucial for maintaining sustainability in aquaculture. Conventional plant‐based protein meals, such as soybean meal, canola meal, DDGS, cottonseed, corn meal, and their combinations have been extensively explored in aquafeed used in fed‐aquaculture systems. Nevertheless, endeavors and scholarly interest in incorporating non‐conventional plant‐based feed ingredients (NPFIs) with nutritional value into aquafeeds for sustainable aquaculture production remain ongoing. NPFIs that have yet to be fully explored and authorized might be considered as a novel source of protein, lipids, carbohydrates, and functional biomolecules. There are a diverse number of NPFIs, such as seed meal, leaf meal, seed cake, kernel meal, by‐product meal, and fruit waste meal that exhibit considerable diversity in their nutritional profile, with the crude protein content varying from 2.4% to 76.4% and crude lipid levels ranging from 0.2% to 39.5%. Besides, the presence of various amounts of fatty acids, amino acids, and phytochemicals may positively enhance growth and feed efficiency and promote the overall health of aquatic species, making them considered as valuable aquafeed ingredients. This review, therefore, aims to comprehensively investigate and critically evaluate the utilization of NPFIs as novel feed ingredients for the growth, health, and welfare of farmed aquatic species. A Strengths‐Weaknesses‐Opportunities‐and‐Threats (SWOT) analysis has also been conducted to assess the feasibility of NPFIs for aquafeeds. As a result, this review indicates that the integration of NPFIs into aquafeeds as feedstuffs or feed additives offers great potential in the sustainable development of aquaculture production for all parties involved, particularly small‐scale producers.
Among the jack family (Carangidae), pompanos, Trachinotus spp., are the most farmed globally. The top four most aquacultured species are golden pompano, T. ovatus , snubnose pompano, T. blochii , Indian pompano, T. mookalee , and Florida pompano, T. carolinus . While initial efforts to culture these species heavily relied on wild‐caught small fish of various species (commonly referred to as ‘trash fish’) for growout, pompanos can readily accept and thrive on formulated pelleted feeds. This has largely been accomplished through decades of nutritional research where marine‐based ingredients can be feasibly replaced with plant and animal‐based protein mixtures as long as essential amino acids, including taurine, and long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids meet their nutritional requirements. Obstacles still exist, including relatively poor feed efficiency, despite having a high digestibility of various ingredients, along with major research gaps in pompano nutrition and feed management of late juveniles to near‐market sized adults. Additionally, nutritional research on vitamin requirements as well as “functional feeds” and “finishing diets” designed for pompano is also relatively limited. After briefly describing the research history and production of the four most commonly farmed Trachinotus species, the main focus will be on discussing the feasibility of using alternatives to marine‐based ingredients, the influence of different starch sources, vitamin/mineral requirements, the success of “functional feeds” and the effectiveness of different feed management strategies in pompano aquaculture.
Increase in aquaculture toward realizing the potential of the ocean as a key food provider requires comprehensive and proactive management approaches to mitigate impacts on coastal areas and to secure space for sustainable aquaculture development in both inshore and offshore areas. Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) and Marine Functional Zoning (MFZ) are policy instruments employed in the management and regulation of multiple human activities to balance social, economic, and environmental objectives. This work reviews the processes and stages of aquaculture integration into these marine spatial planning frameworks (MSP and MFZ) in major producers, China, the EU, Norway, and Canada. Implementation of aquaculture in the spatial planning frameworks varies widely, partly because the nations reviewed are at different stages of aquaculture development, and partly due to the heterogeneity of institutions, traditions, social acceptance, marine space, and governance. The common challenge of aquaculture impacts and interactions with the environment contribute to the complexity of regulating space for mariculture development. The apparent weak and in some cases receding position of aquaculture in the maritime spatial planning frameworks reviewed here warrants considerable concern with respect to expectations of marine aquaculture as a route for ensuring future seafood provision. There is a need to strengthen the position of aquaculture in marine spatial planning frameworks, particularly when considering its expansion in areas with potential for development. It is recommended that the global scientific, management, and regulatory communities work together with local actors to develop and provide accessible tools that will address sustainability challenges ahead.
Unusual mortalities of the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica were reported in 1946 along bays of the Mississippi River, USA, and later attributed to the protozoan Perkinsus marinus . Initially described as Dermocystidium marinum , the parasite was reclassified and has since become one of the most extensively studied pathogens of bivalve mollusks. It is listed by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) because of its significant impact. In Mexico, the parasite was first detected in C. virginica from Gulf of Mexico coastal lagoons during the 1950s. Despite decades of research, no international‐scale review of Mexican studies has been conducted. Twenty‐five articles and eight postgraduate theses were identified that have investigated P. marinus and presumptive P. marinus in Mexico. One of the most significant findings is its detection on the Pacific coast, linked to oyster translocations. The parasite has been reported in a wide diversity of bivalve mollusks belonging to the families Mytilidae, Ostreidae, Pinnidae, Veneridae, and possibly Arcidae. Only two field studies have associated the parasite with mortalities, and their results remain inconclusive. Current evidence suggests that strain variability, host susceptibility, and environmental conditions of Mexico may reduce the lethality of P. marinus . Further research is needed to clarify parasite virulence, host–parasite interactions, and environmental influences. Such studies would not only improve risk assessment in Mexico but also alert other regions to the potential biosecurity significance of P. marinus in diverse bivalves. In addition, Perkinsus chesapeaki and Perkinsus spp. have also been tentatively detected by molecular genetic analyses, which deserve research.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) poses a significant global health burden, necessitating robust animal models for mechanistic studies and drug discovery. Zebrafish offers unique advantages as a powerful models in kidney disease, including high‐throughput compatibility, optical transparency, and significant genetic and nephron homology with both humans and farmed teleosts. However, challenges, such as the species' potent regenerative capacity and a lack of standardized diagnostic thresholds, hinder their broad application. This review systematically summarizes four principal induction strategies: environmental stress, nephrotoxic chemical exposure, CRISPR/Cas‐based gene editing, and transgenesis. We further outline a validation pipeline that integrates functional assays, morphometrics, and histopathology, while advocating for cross‐laboratory harmonization. Additionally, we compare risk factors for CKD and CKD of unknown etiology (CKDu), emphasizing environmental contributors. Collectively, we propose zebrafish as a reproducible platform for aquaculture applications, specifically for nephropathy early‐warning systems and functional feed assessment, and for human therapeutic research. These standardized models hold great promise for high‐throughput drug screening and elucidating disease mechanisms, facilitating the translation of findings to both aquaculture and clinical medicine.
ABSTRACT With the ongoing expansion of intensive aquaculture, the emergence of parasite drug resistance and the increasing frequency of disease outbreaks have become significant challenges. Conventional antiparasitic agents are increasingly restricted due to burgeoning resistance, environmental persistence, and safety concerns. Consequently, the development of eco‐friendly and sustainable therapeutic alternatives has emerged as a primary research priority. Herbal medicines (HMs), characterized by a vast reservoir of structurally diverse and bioactive compounds, serve as ideal candidates for drug discovery in aquaculture. In recent years, substantial research effort has been directed toward identifying commercially viable HM‐derived agents for the fish farming industry. Advancements in isolation and purification technologies have facilitated the extraction of numerous insecticidal small molecules, while further studies have elucidated their underlying antiparasitic mechanisms. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of HMs in preventing and treating aquatic parasitic infections, encompassing the isolation of active constituents, evaluation of efficacy, modes of action, and optimization of application strategies. Furthermore, we address the inherent challenges and future trajectories of utilizing HMs in aquaculture. By synthesizing current knowledge on these bioactive compounds, this review aims to facilitate the development of safe, highly bioavailable, and environmentally sustainable antiparasitic agents.
ABSTRACT With the transformation of aquaculture toward green and sustainable development, the research and application of natural feed additives have become a research focus in the field. As two types of green additives with high efficiency and low residue, herbal medicines and probiotics show significant potential in improving the health of fish and enhancing aquaculture benefits. This paper systematically reviews the research progress of their applications in aquaculture, summarizing the core active components of herbal medicines as well as their mainstream isolation and purification techniques. It further analyzes the high functional consistency between the two in promoting growth performance, regulating gut microecological balance, enhancing immune function, optimizing nutritional metabolism, and improving muscle nutritional composition and quality. Moreover, this paper illustrates the synergistic interaction modes of herbal medicines and probiotics. Their combined application produces functional superposition and mutual complementation, which jointly enhance physiological regulation. More importantly, the interaction between herbal medicines and probiotics during the production of fermented herbal medicines is more pronounced. It can generate new active substances, increase the concentration of effective components, and promote digestion and absorption, thus greatly enhancing the overall physiological regulatory effect. Finally, the paper identifies current research limitations and prospects future directions, highlighting that artificial intelligence can help achieve full‐cycle intelligent control and precise application of herbal medicines and probiotics in aquaculture. This review will provide new insights to address practical industrial challenges, thereby providing a comprehensive reference for the theoretical research and practical application of green feed additives in aquaculture.
Infectious diseases are an increasing threat to food security, small-scale livelihoods and the sustainability of aquaculture in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In sub-Saharan Africa, aquaculture is expanding rapidly but production systems often remain fragile. In West Africa, particularly in Benin, Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal, production remains modest despite rising demand. Interactions between farming practices, environmental exposures (e.g., contaminants and agricultural effluents) and pathogen emergence are poorly documented. Here we review evidence on production systems, reported pathogens, diagnostic and surveillance capacity in these three countries. We find that (i) production relies mainly on small-scale ponds, cages often within integrated agro-aquaculture systems with recurring constraints in biosecurity, water management and governance; (ii) available evidence is fragmented and uneven across pathogen groups, with most reports focusing on bacterial and parasitic conditions and major gaps for viruses, fungi, co-infections, antimicrobial resistance and combined environmental pressures; and (iii) health management and laboratory capacities remain constrained, but existing networks and experience from terrestrial animal health provide entry points for integrated and participatory surveillance. We discuss these patterns through an exposome-informed One Health lens, highlighting how multiple exposure pathways link farms, watersheds and nearby communities. Based on this synthesis, we outline research and policy priorities to strengthen health resilience and to support more sustainable small-scale freshwater aquaculture in West Africa and, with relevance to other tropical LMIC settings.
ABSTRACT Pontastacus leptodactylus is a freshwater crayfish native to the Ponto‐Caspian region, with a distribution across Eastern Europe and Western Asia. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the biology, culture development, and prospects for sustainable aquaculture of P. leptodactylus . Commercial exploitation of P. leptodactylus has a long history in Western Europe and the Ponto‐Caspian region and has relied primarily on capture fisheries. Türkiye served as the principal exporter to international markets until the 1985 outbreak of crayfish plague ( Aphanomyces astaci ), which precipitated widespread stock collapses. In contrast, aquaculture development remained limited for decades and has only recently gained momentum, particularly, in China. Following the first identification of P. leptodactylus in China in 2021, interest in its culture has increased, with pilot‐scale farming trials and localized hatchery activities reported across several provinces. However, production remains limited in scale, and these developments are best regarded as early‐stage or proof‐of‐concept initiatives rather than established commercial aquaculture. Accordingly, this review provides an integrated appraisal of culture practices, including broodstock management, artificial incubation, juvenile feeding, stocking strategies, grow‐out systems, and health and biosecurity protocols. It further synthesizes market dynamics, value‐chain development, and welfare considerations alongside performance benchmarks. Key constraints such as the lack of species‐specific feeds, limited tools for cannibalism mitigation, and the absence of selective breeding programs are identified as major barriers to sustainable scale‐up. This review offers a framework to guide future research, management decisions, and aquaculture development for the sustainable utilization of P. leptodactylus .
ABSTRACT Fish polyculture is the concurrent rearing of multiple fish species within the same aquaculture system. It represents one of the oldest and most adaptable strategies for enhancing aquatic food production. While its ecological and economic potential is widely acknowledged, a comprehensive understanding of global patterns of research on fish polyculture remains lacking. This study provides a systematic synthesis of scientific literature over 55 years (i.e., published between 1968 and 2023), following the PSALSAR methodology. Using the Web of Science database, 889 peer‐reviewed articles were screened, of which 220 met inclusion criteria. Each study was analyzed for species composition, production systems, research objectives, and management strategies. Results show a strong geographic bias, with research predominantly originating from Asia, while Africa, Europe, and the Americas remain underrepresented. Freshwater pond systems dominated the research landscape, and most studies focused on growth performance and yield optimization rather than ecological or socioeconomic outcomes. However, recent publications indicate a shift toward sustainability‐oriented approaches, including integrated multi‐trophic aquaculture, biofloc systems, and rice–fish ecosystems. Analyses revealed emerging research themes linking species diversity, nutrient recycling, and ecological efficiency. This review provides the first global overview of fish polyculture research, highlighting major trends as well as global and regional gaps. Future work should emphasize ecosystem function, animal welfare, and the integration of circular economy principles to enhance the contribution of fish polyculture to sustainable aquaculture development.
ABSTRACT Antifouling remains a critical constraint on the expansion of marine aquaculture, yet existing knowledge is fragmented across materials science, hydrodynamics, ecology, and farm economics. This review synthesizes mechanistic understanding of marine biofouling and corrosion on aquaculture infrastructure through a structured literature review of more than 200 primary studies and reviews spanning materials science, hydrodynamics, ecology, environmental assessment, operational management, and system‐level antifouling design. Major strategy classes, including biocidal self‐polishing coatings, copper‐alloy meshes, foul‐release silicones, hydrophilic, zwitterionic, amphiphilic, photocatalytic, nanocomposite, and biomimetic systems, are evaluated alongside non‐coating operational measures such as robotic cleaning and hyperspectral monitoring. By comparing their performance, environmental profiles, and implementation constraints, the review translates current evidence into system‐level design guidance for marine aquaculture. Findings highlight the multiscale nature of biofouling impacts on drag, dissolved oxygen, structural integrity, and ecosystem responses, and show that no single technology dominates across performance, environmental risk, and cost. The review provides integrated design and reporting checklists, a multi‐criteria decision workflow for selecting coatings and structures, and an environmental risk matrix for major strategy types. A forward‐looking roadmap outlines priorities for adaptive multifunctional materials, farm‐scale modeling, and coordinated governance, providing a mechanism‐informed, system‐level foundation for antifouling in marine aquaculture.
ABSTRACT This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature on additive manufacturing, commonly known as three‐dimensional (3D) printing, in aquaculture systems. Among emerging technological innovations, 3D printing has gained increasing prominence in aquaculture operations due to its capacity to enable customized design, facilitate rapid prototyping, and improve operational efficiency. The integration of 3D printing into aquaculture offers advanced and innovative solutions and represents a promising pathway toward the development of smart aquaculture systems. This review critically evaluates various additive manufacturing technologies, their applications within the aquaculture sector, and relevant case studies. Publication trends, citation patterns, and patent activity from 2010 to 2025 are also analyzed. Furthermore, the review categorizes and assesses the benefits, challenges, and limitations associated with the adoption of 3D printing in aquaculture. Future research priorities are identified, with particular emphasis on sustainable materials, durability testing under aquaculture conditions, cost‐feasibility frameworks, and closed‐loop digital design–manufacturing workflows. By highlighting the role of 3D printing in aquaculture, this review addresses an emerging area of research and fills an important gap in the literature. The presented insights aim to guide researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers in advancing the integration of 3D printing technologies within the aquaculture sector.
