Since the first isolation of graphene in 2004, a whole range of two-dimensional (2D) materials have been discovered, offering diverse electronic properties that are relevant to applications in, e.g., nanoelectronics, catalysis, or sensing. A major bottleneck that remains to this day is the controlled large-scale production of single-crystalline monolayers without significant defect density. In the last decade, it has been demonstrated that 2D materials can be grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods on liquid metals as a substrate. Liquid metals, not being constrained to a specific surface crystallography, allow to grow large, single-crystalline monolayers of various materials such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride, and MXenes. While large progress has been achieved in the field, deeper insights into fundamental growth mechanisms are required in order to provide a solid understanding of the underlying chemistry. In this review, we lay the theoretical framework of nucleation and growth of nanomaterials, specifically 2D materials, and their growth by CVD on liquid metals. We review the growth mechanisms of major classes of 2D materials, as well as draw a picture of the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters at play. In the last part, tools for experimental studies of the growth of 2D materials by CVD on liquid metals are discussed. This review aims at harnessing the key concepts one might need to thoroughly analyze the outcome of one of these synthesis procedures, as well as providing insights in the development of the techniques in an effort of synthesizing 2D materials at a large scale.
Monolayered metal oxides (MMOs), typically differing from their bulk counterparts, have attracted extensive research interest due to their unique properties for heterogeneous catalysis. MMOs routinely undergo structural relaxation and form strong interactions with their underlying substrates, giving rise to distinctive energetic and electronic characteristics that dictate their formation and catalytic behavior. In contrast to metals, metal oxides possess a low surface free energy, which endows MMOs with a higher stability than their bulk counterparts, making it relatively easy to obtain MMOs rather than multilayers through either molecular beam epitaxy growth or direct oxidation. For MMOs grown on metal substrates, their electronic structures are remarkably affected by the underlying metal supports. Specifically, the augmented chemical potentials of MMOs by the underlying metal substrates typically facilitate effective dispersion of supported single metal atoms or clusters. Moreover, the interfaces established between MMOs and metal substrates can provide abundant coordinatively unsaturated sites that are widely recognized as critical catalytic active zones for catalytical performance. Therefore, this review primarily focuses on recent research advances of MMOs, covering their stability in synthesis strategies, dispersibility in supporting single-atoms/clusters and activity in model catalysis. Our goal aims at exploiting the great potential of MMOs in advancing our exploration and understanding of practical heterogeneous catalysis.
Research in the field of biointerfaces is currently expanding because of continuous scientific demands stemming from different areas of biology and biomedicine. The most challenging questions require new technological advancements, often emerging from apparently distant disciplines, such as vacuum science and technology (VST). If living systems are characterized by their molecular diversity and scaled hierarchical structure, VST provides a palette of bioanalytical techniques designed to disentangle emerging complex biointerface structures. We review crucial developments in bioanalytical systems concentrating on those based on kinetic electrons and ions. Developments in these techniques are closing the vacuum gap between the conditions required for a sensitive analysis and the natural environment of the sample (near ambient pressure analysis). The biomedical field has been the focus of most of the reviewed developments, with an emphasis on recent research related to microbiological analysis. Additional examples from environmental applications, zoology or agriculture (among others) are also presented.
The advent of atomically thin two-dimensional (2D) materials provides a versatile platform to transcend the fundamental limitations of silicon-based electronics and continue the miniaturization of field-effect transistors, yet the epitaxial growth of wafer-scale, single-crystalline structure remains a formidable challenge. In recent years, the vigorous development of machine learning (ML) techniques has contributed to a revolutionary shift in materials synthesis, characterization and application, offering unprecedented opportunities for scientific and technological innovations that are inaccessible through traditional experimental and computational methods. This review aims to outline recent progress of ML-assisted 2D materials growth, including optimizing synthesis conditions, automating real-time characterizations and unveiling growth mechanisms. Current challenges and future prospects in this frontier research field are also discussed. Overall, this review highlights the synergy between advanced ML techniques and surface growth approaches for accelerated materials synthesis and intelligent design of next-generation functional devices.
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials renowned for their high porosity, chemical tunability, and modular design. The development of surface-anchored and oriented MOF thin films—particularly those fabricated by layer-by-layer or epitaxial growth—has shifted MOF research from powder studies to investigations of well-defined, surface-confined architectures. This review examines MOF thin films from a surface-science perspective, emphasizing how controlled growth at well-defined interfaces enables quantitative studies of structure–property relationships, interfacial charge and energy transfer, polarization-dependent optical responses, and dynamic guest–host interactions. The long-range crystallographic order achievable in these oriented films gives rise to band-structure effects and anisotropic transport phenomena that cannot be observed in MOF thin films prepared from powder-derived particles. Their monolithic and defect-controlled nature allows detailed characterization by advanced surface-sensitive techniques such as IRRAS, XPS, NEXAFS, UPS, nanoindentation, ellipsometry, and AFM, providing direct links between microscopic structure and macroscopic functionality. Beyond serving as model systems, oriented MOF films represent versatile platforms for adsorption, catalysis, and electronic coupling at hybrid organic–inorganic interfaces. The review also highlights how computational modeling, machine learning, and AI-guided synthesis accelerate the rational design of interface-engineered MOF architectures with tailored properties.
