Epoxiconazole (EPO) and fludioxonil (FLU) are fluorinated fungicides known for their extremely high environmental persistence and significant ecotoxicological impact. Given their decades-old use in the agrochemical sector, EPO and FLU became frequent pollutants of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. And yet, not much is known regarding how these pesticides biodegrade in the natural environment or how to develop suitable bioremediation approaches capable of tackling their inherent recalcitrance. As such, this work focused on providing new insights into the bacterial degradation of EPO and FLU, by surveying the catabolic activity of a previously obtained EPO-enriched bacterial consortium through chemical and metaproteogenomic analyses guided by different metabolic modelling tools. The bacterial consortium was capable of extensively degrading EPO and FLU in 21 days, with fungicide removals of over 90% and defluorination efficiencies of up to 80%, but none of the subproducts predicted in silico were identified for either pesticide. Despite this, the combination of metabolic modelling tools and metaproteogenomic surveys suggested that EPO and FLU were first attacked in their N-heterocyclic moieties and that the targets of defluorination were the resulting aromatic fluorinated intermediates. This catabolic cascade is consistent with the experimental data gathered in this study and with the existing literature on this topic. Also, the degrading consortium remained stable at the taxonomical and functional levels, highlighting its catabolic plasticity in biodegrading and defluorinating two chemically distinct fluorinated compounds. This work offers a conceptual framework with novel observations that can guide future efforts to further elucidate the pathways of microbial transformation of these pesticides, ultimately contributing to better environmental risk management practices for these pollutants.

This study evaluates volatile extracts (HE1 and HE2) from the lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea as eco-friendly agents to control algal proliferation, specifically targeting the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and the green microalga Chlorella sorokiniana. Both extracts exhibited potent anti-microalgal activity against the two species with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 375 to 750 µg/mL. Furthermore, both extracts reduced cell density by more than 98% after eight days of treatment. Chlorophyll a and protein levels decreased significantly (>80%) in both species, indicating suppression of pigment synthesis. However, their physiological responses were distinct: M. aeruginosa underwent early acute oxidative stress and severe membrane damage, while C. sorokiniana exhibited delayed oxidative activation and a negative growth rate, suggesting non-lytic metabolic inhibition. An in silico study by molecular docking of the most abundant compounds identified in these volatile extracts, such as terpenoids (abietatriene, δ-cadinene) and a phenolic compound (atraric acid), showed that these compounds interact with vital cellular targets in M. aeruginosa and C. sorokiniana and likely contribute to the effects observed in these two species. Predictive toxicity by applying the ADMET framework confirmed the favorable bioavailability and low acute toxicity of these volatile compounds. Therefore, P. furfuracea volatiles are promising, species-specific, and environmentally safe candidates for mitigating aquatic algal proliferation through targeted oxidative and metabolic interference.

Structural colors (SC), generated by light interacting with nano-structured materials, are responsible for the brightest and most vivid coloration in nature. Despite being widespread within the tree of life, there is little knowledge of the genes involved. Partial exceptions are some Flavobacteriia in which genes involved in a number of pathways, including gliding motility and polysaccharide metabolism, have been linked to SC. A previous genomic analysis of SC and non-SC bacteria suggested that the pterin pathway is involved in the organization of bacteria to form SC. Here, we focus on moeA, a molybdopterin molybdenum transferase. When this gene was deleted from Flavobacterium IR1, the knock-out mutant showed a strong blue shift in SC of the colony compared to the wild-type. The moeA mutant showed a particularly strong blue shift when grown on kappa-carrageenan and was upregulated for starch degradation. To further analyze the molecular changes, proteomic analysis was performed, showing the upregulation of various polysaccharide utilization loci, which supported the link between moeA and polysaccharide metabolism in SC. Overall, we demonstrated that a targeted approach, modifying a single gene identified by genomics, could change the optical properties of bacteria.

Microcystin (MC) contamination of surface waters threatens ecosystems and public health. Nature-based solutions such as Multi-Soil-Layering (MSL) systems have been used for MC remediation. However, the biological mechanisms controlling MC degradation remain unclear. The present study investigates microbial community responses in two MSL systems with different clay contents (8% and 54%) exposed to MC-contaminated inputs (well water and eutrophied lake water). Samples were analysed before and after treatment using quantitative PCR (qPCR) to quantify the mlrA gene (encoding microcystinase) and its bacterial hosts. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was used to assess microbial diversity, while the FAPROTAX database was used to predict functional characteristics. Results showed that MC was mainly adsorbed in pozzolan layers, while mlrA gene abundance and MC-degrading bacteria were higher in soil mixture layers. The presence of mlrA and associated bacteria was most pronounced in lake inflow samples, indicating intrinsic MC Biodegradation potential. Taxonomic analysis revealed dominant phyla including Proteobacteria, Actinobacteriota, Firmicutes, Chloroflexi and Bacteroidota. Functional analysis identified dominant traits such as chemoheterotrophy and aerobic metabolism. These findings provide new insights into microbial interactions in MSL systems and contribute to the optimisation of water treatment strategies for MC-contaminated environments.

Introdução: As florescências de cianobactérias e as respetivas cianotoxinas representam um risco à saúde humana, animal e dos ecossistemas, enquadrando-se no “One Health”. Potenciadas pela eutrofização e pelas alterações climáticas, estas ocorrências comprometem a qualidade de água e perturbam processos ecológicos e biogeoquímicos. As principais cianotoxinas, icluem microcistinas, cilindrospermopsinas, anatoxina-a e saxitoxina, com efeitos hepáticos, imunotóxicos e neurológicos. Objetivo: Este estudo analisa os impactos das cianobactérias e cianotoxinas nas três dimensões One Health, identificando os principais desafios regulamentares. Metodologia: Realizou-se uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a integração deste tema no enquadramento One Health e uma análise crítica da legislação e orientações nacionais e internacionais. A pesquisa incluiu publicações científicas nas bases de dados Scopus, Web of Science e PubMed, abrangendo artigos publicados entre 2010 e 2024. Resultados: A exposição humana pode ocorrer através do consumo de água contaminada, contacto dérmico ou ingestão de alimentos provenientes dos ecossistemas afetados. Nos animais, a exposição ocorre sobretudo pela ingestão de água e alimentos contaminados, manifestando-se na mortalidade de gado, animais domésticos e selvagens. A nível ambiental, ocorrem variações na biomassa de fitoplâncton, promovendo a formação de zonas hipóxicas, comprometendo funções ecológicas dos ecossistemas. Estes fenómenos acarretam perdas económicas, incluindo custos acrescidos no tratamento de água, perdas na produção agropecuária e piscícola, no turismo e na recuperação dos ecossistemas. A nível Europeu, o limite para microcistina-LR na água de consumo é 1 µg/L, com gestão de risco ao longo do sistema de abastecimento, sem valores definidos para outras cianotoxinas. Em Portugal, este limite é adotado, sendo a monitorização intensificada quando densidade de cianobactérias potencialmente produtoras de toxinas excede 2.000 células/mL. Para águas recreativas, prevê-se que a presença de florescências seja sinal de alerta, cabendo aos serviços de saúde pública avaliar o risco e implementar medidas de gestão adequadas, mesmo na ausência de valores quantitativos regulamentares. No que concerne às águas de irrigação, tanto a nível nacional como Europeu, a legislação não define parâmetros específicos, evidenciando lacunas. Conclusão: Estas constatações evidenciam a necessidade de uma gestão integrada e multidisciplinar, combinando monitorização, avaliação e comunicação intersectorial, para mitigar os efeitos das cianobactérias e cianotoxinas, garantindo a proteção dos princípios One Health.

Nuclear receptors (NRs) of the NR1J1 group have been described in aquatic invertebrates and proposed as the evolutionary counterparts of vertebrate NR1I receptors, known for their role in xenobiotic-sensing and detoxification. In bivalves, previous studies have shown that NR1J1 activity and gene expression are modulated by pharmaceuticals, toxins, natural compounds, and algal extracts. However, their functional properties and diversification remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the function and evolution of NR1J1 receptors in the bivalves Mytilus galloprovincialis and Ruditapes decussatus. We first identified four nr1j1 paralogs in R. decussatus and then integrated phylogenetic analysis, domain identity comparisons, tissue distribution profiling, and luciferase-based transactivation assays to characterize NR1J1 paralogs from both species. The receptors displayed distinct but partially overlapping transactivation profiles in response to confirmed ligands of NR1I and NR1H receptors, natural compounds, plant extracts, and fish bile, indicating paralog- and species-specific differences in ligand responsiveness. Allocholic acid emerged as the most consistent agonist across paralogs, whereas curcumin, carnosic acid, and Ptychopetalum olacoides extract showed more selective response patterns. Tissue profiling revealed broad but non-uniform expression of nr1j1 paralogs across bivalve tissues. Together, these findings underscore that bivalve NR1J1 receptors constitute a functionally diversified chemical-sensing system and provide a framework for future studies addressing ligand-dependent regulation and detoxification pathways.

Marine biofouling remains a major challenge for maritime industries, affecting submerged structures and vessels worldwide. The long-standing reliance on biocidal coatings, together with their documented environmental impacts, has led to increasingly restrictive regulations and an urgent demand for environmentally compatible antifouling (AF) solutions. This study evaluates the AF potential and toxicological profile of two nucleoside analogues, hypoxanthine arabinoside (1′) and 2′-deoxyinosine (2′), selected based on the previously reported non-lethal AF activity of the naturally occurring nucleosides adenosine and 2′-deoxyadenosine from cyanobacteria. Both analogues inhibited the growth of Navicula sp. by approximately 60% without inducing mortality and significantly reduced settlement of Mytilus galloprovincialis plantigrades, with EC50 values of 5.50 µM (1′) and 8.54 µM (2′), and no lethality detected (LC50 > 200 µM). At near-EC50 concentrations, both compounds increased acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase activities, supported by molecular docking results, suggesting involvement of neurotransmission- and byssal formation-related pathways. Proteomic analysis revealed compound-specific molecular responses. No lethal effects were observed in non-target organisms (LC50 > 32 µM for A. amphitrite and LC50 > 50 µM for A. salina), and environmental fate modelling predicted low bioaccumulation and rapid degradation. Overall, substitution of the amino group by a carbonyl group preserved AF efficacy without increasing toxicity, highlighting nucleosides as promising low-toxicity AF agents.

The increase in multidrug resistance in microorganisms and the rise of emergent infectious diseases worldwide is a threat to human and animal health. Therefore, research on new molecules with antibiotic potential is a priority. Lichens have a unique secondary metabolism with relatively untapped potential, yet their essential oils (EOs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) remain a relatively untapped resource. This systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, with a comprehensive search performed in the Web of Science database for studies published up to 2023. From 254 identified records, six studies involving nine lichen species (Evernia prunastri, Evernia divaricata, Cladonia rangiformis, Cladonia furcata, Parmotrema perlatum, Lichina pygmaea, Parmelia perlata, Hypogymnia physodes, and Parmelia sulcata) met the eligibility criteria. The synthesized data show that these volatile fractions possess significant antimicrobial potential, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) generally lower than 1 mg/mL. Major bioactive constituents identified include atraric acid, orsellinates, and various sesquiterpenes. While the current evidence highlights a strong potential of lichen volatiles against pathogens, research is limited to a small fraction of known species. This review identifies a critical gap in testing these compounds directly against MDR clinical isolates and suggests that future research should focus on high-biomass species and the heterologous expression of lichen biosynthetic genes to develop sustainable antimicrobial applications.

Microplastics (MPs) may alter the environmental fate and trophic transfer of lipophilic phycotoxins in coastal waters, but the consequences for marine organisms remain largely unresolved. We investigated whether cell-free extract of Prorocentrum lima, containing diarrhetic shellfish toxin okadaic acid (OA), could be transferred to and retained in Perna perna mussels. The extract was supplied either as dissolved compounds in seawater or adsorbed onto 5 μm polystyrene MPs, and both OA tissue distribution and the resulting histological and proteomic implications were evaluated over time. When delivered in the dissolved form (T-PL), OA accumulated mainly in digestive tissues (DT), reaching 19.0 ± 3.8 ng g−1 within seven days of exposure. When OA was associated with MPs (T-PLMP), the toxin OA was detected 2 days earlier and persisted at relatively high concentrations until day 14 in DT (12.8 ± 4.5 ng g−1), with 77–99% of the toxin present as conjugated (i.e., transformed) forms. In the remaining tissues, OA reached 5.7 ± 3.8 ng g−1 at day 2 and then declined. Mussels exposed to P. lima extract exhibited tissue alterations, including digestive tubule atrophy, vacuolation, and hemocyte infiltration, with more severe effects in the T-PLMP. Likewise, gill lesions were more frequent in mussels exposed to T-PLMP. Proteomic analysis revealed alterations in pathways related to protein turnover, cytoskeletal stability, apoptosis, and cellular stress. Overall, MP association modified OA toxicokinetics in mussels, promoting earlier detection and prolonged persistence in digestive tissues, while intensified structural damage and molecular stress. These results suggest that MPs can magnify the environmental hazard posed by lipophilic phycotoxins, underscoring the importance of considering multi-contaminant interactions in marine coastal risk assessments.

The strains LEGE 06306, LEGE 06307, LEGE 11436 and LEGE 10375, isolated from northern Portugal, were characterized using a polyphasic taxonomic approach that included 16S rRNA gene phylogenetic analyses (ML and BI), 16S-23S ITS secondary structures, p-distance calculations, phylogenomics, morphological and ultrastructural (TEM) observations, MALDI-TOF MS profiling, as well as ecological and biochemical characterization. Although LEGE 06306, LEGE 06307, and LEGE 11436 share high 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity and display very similar morphology, the three ML and BI phylogenetic analyses revealed that these strains form three distinct lineages within the family Prochlorococcaceae, without consistent affiliation to any previously described genera. The phylogenomic analysis, ITS comparisons and the biochemical statistical comparisons further supported the separation of these lineages. MALDI-TOF analysis revealed unique spectral profiles for each strain, while their pigment compositions were similar but varied in pigment concentrations, supporting their distinction. Based on these combined results, the three strains are described as representatives of three new cyanobacterial genera. Strain LEGE 10375 showed an uncertain placement in both the 16S rRNA gene and wholegenome phylogenies and therefore could not be taxonomically assigned. The high content of bioactive metabolites of the studied strains, including pigments, phenolic compounds, and sugars, positions them as sustainable sources for functional ingredients with potential applications in the food, feed, and pharmaceutical industries.

Cyanobacterial blooms (CyanoHABs) and their associated toxins pose a significant threat to public health and water quality. A novel approach called Multi-Soil-Layering (MSL) has been developed and demonstrated to effectively and sustainably remove CyanoHABs and cyanotoxins from water. This study evaluated the MSL's ability to remove CyanoHABs on a laboratory scale. Two MSL mesocosms were designed to treat well water contaminated with Microcystis aeruginosa and MC-LR. These consisted of alternating permeable layers of a pozzolan and soil mixture layers arranged in a brick-layer pattern. The MSL1 used a sandy soil containing 8 % clay, while the MSL2 used a soil with a high clay content of 54 %. The mesocosms were continuously fed with a synthetic bloom at a hydraulic loading rate of 200 L m-2 day-1. The MSL systems effectively removed up to 90 % of the organic matter and nutrients. In addition, both MSL mesocosms were highly efficient at removing cyanobacteria cells and microcystins from the water, achieving a removal rate of over 99 %. Furthermore, both MSL substrates demonstrated the ability to adsorb and biodegrade MC-LR. These results suggest that MSL ecotechnology could be an effective and sustainable solution for removing cyanoHABs from freshwater ecosystems.

The presence of pharmaceuticals in natural habitats is an increasing concern. In particular, the antidepressant tramadol (TRA) and its metabolite o-desmethyltramadol (OTRA) have become ubiquitous compounds in aquatic ecosystems. However, investigation of their impact on fish, particularly on their proteome, still needs attention. Therefore, this work assesses the alterations in the proteome of zebrafish larvae caused by TRA or OTRA exposure. Zebrafish larvae (0-3 h post-fertilization, hpf) were exposed to 0.1 or 100 μg/L of TRA or OTRA until reaching 168 hpf. The larvae proteome was then investigated through shotgun proteomics, employing the filter-aided sample preparation method (FASP) followed by high-throughput LC-MS/MS analysis. Coupling mass spectrometry quantification with a saturated orthogonal multiple linear regression analysis provided identification of differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). Finally, the functional analysis of these DEPs was performed with STRING-DB online tool to identify possible molecular pathways affected by the treatments. A total of 162 DEPs were identified, with the highest number observed in larvae exposed to the lower TRA concentration. These highlights possible non-monotonic responses and supports previously described effects for other endpoints, which may affect the serotonergic, noradrenergic and opioid systems. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis also indicated putative alterations in metabolic pathways e.g., Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis, Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA), Oxidative phosphorylation, Pyruvate metabolism, and Carbon metabolism. Our results suggest that TRA and OTRA exposure may impact vital biological processes in fish larvae, emphasizing the need for adequate integrated monitoring of tramadol, its metabolites, and effects in aquatic ecosystems.

Toxic cyanobacterial blooms are a growing environmental problem, persisting in freshwater bodies globally, and potentially hazardous to populations that rely on surface freshwater supplies. Nature-based solution units (NBSUs) are effective and sustainable approaches for water treatment, with sorption being an important process. The purpose of this study was to evaluate unmodified agro-based waste materials (rice husks, olive pulp pomace pellets (OP), cork granules) and the benchmark NBSU substrates (biochar, light expanded clay aggregate (LECA), and sand) for their microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) sorption potential. The kinetics and sorption mechanism of the two best sorbent materials were studied for future incorporation into NBSUs. Pre-screening of the sorbents showed highest sorption with biochar (>86% MC-LR and >98% CYN) and LECA (78% MC-LR and 80% CYN) and lower sorption with rice husk (<10%), cork (<10%), and sand (<26%). Leaching from OP made them unsuitable for further use. The sorption of both the cyanotoxins onto biochar was rapid (8 h), whereas onto LECA it was steadier (requiring 48 h for equilibrium). The pseudo-second-order kinetic model fit the sorption of both cyanotoxins onto biochar and LECA (R2: 0.94–0.99), suggesting that the sorption rate is limited by chemisorption. The sorption of MC-LR and CYN to biochar and LECA fit the Freundlich and D–R models better, suggesting multilayer sorption, high heterogeneity, and porosity in the sorbents (which was also confirmed by SEM/EDS). The sorption capacity was observed to be higher for biochar (Kf: MC-LR = 0.05, CYN = 0.16) than LECA (Kf: MC-LR = 0.02, CYN = 0.01).

The white-spotted jellyfish, Phyllorhiza punctata, is an invasive species with significant ecological and economic relevance spreading across various regions. While its ecological impact is well-documented, its molecular and biochemical characteristics remain poorly understood. In this study, we integrate proteomic data generated by LC-MS/MS with publicly available transcriptomic information to characterize P. punctata, analyzing differential protein expression across three distinct tissues: oral arms, mantle, and gonads. A total of 2764 proteins and 25,045 peptides were identified, including several venom components such as jellyfish toxins (JFTs) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which were further investigated and compared to toxins from other species. Enrichment analyses revealed clear tissue-specific functions. Additionally, deep learning and machine learning tools identified 274 promising AMP candidates, including the α-helical, β-sheet, and αβ-motif peptides. This dataset provides new insights into the protein composition of P. punctata and highlights strong AMP candidates for further characterization, underscoring the biotechnological potential of underexplored cnidarian species.

The prevention of marine biofouling remains a global challenge due to environmental concerns associated with current biocidal antifouling (AF) agents and increasing regulatory pressure to ban such biocides. Natural products present promising alternatives as effective and eco-friendly AF solutions, with cyanobacteria emerging as a rich source of bioactive compounds due to their remarkable biosynthetic potential. In this study, the AF bio-guided discovery of natural products from the cyanobacterium Leptothoe sp. LEGE 181152 led to the isolation of two nucleosides - adenosine (1) and 2'-deoxyadenosine (2), which were for the first time explored as innovative AF agents. A comprehensive approach was undertaken, including AF efficacy across biological levels, ecotoxicity and ecological risk assessment, and molecular targets elucidation. Compounds 1 and 2 successfully inhibited mussel settlement (EC50 = 6.63; 8.74 µM), without exhibiting lethal effects (LC50 > 200 µM). At these concentrations, both compounds increased the in vitro acetylcholinesterase activity. Functional enrichment analysis revealed effects on proteins associated to ciliary motility and ATP metabolism. Additionally, both compounds inhibited the growth of Navicula sp. ( ̴40 % for 1, and 60 % for 2). In addition to showing no effect on marine biofilm-forming marine bacteria, ecotoxicological assays with nauplii of Artemia salina and Amphibalanus amphitrite revealed no acute toxicity in these species. Furthermore, simulated environmental data indicated a low potential for bioaccumulation and low environmental persistence. Overall, these findings identify adenosine and 2'-deoxyadenosine as novel, low-risk natural AF agents, with real-world applicability as promising candidates for incorporation into marine coatings, thereby contributing to the development of more sustainable solutions for biofouling management.

The zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) is a widely used aquatic model organism. However, fish from confined groups may experience inbreeding and loss of heterozygosity, which could affect biological responses and research outcomes. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the genetic differences among zebrafish populations from different commercial suppliers and assess their influence on responses to copper exposure. Seven groups of 3-month-old zebrafish were obtained from the major commercial breeders in the Arequipa region, Peru, and coded as zfRS, zfRN, zfHN, zfHV, zfHS, zfDN, and zfCN. Morphometric and morphological analyses were performed on a subsample, while genetic assessments focused on the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene, examining phylogeny, haplotypes, and polymorphisms. Additionally, mortality, sublethal effects, and liver histology were evaluated in response to four copper concentrations (ranging from 0.125 to 1.0 mg/L). No evident morphometric or morphological distinctions were observed between groups. On the contrary, COI gene assessment classified the seven groups into two main genetic clades, with the zfRS group being genetically distinct from the others. Two primary origins (Asian and North American) were identified, and moderate haplotype diversity (0.43 ± 0.06) and low nucleotide diversity (0.00137 ± 0.00) were observed. The zfHS and zfRN groups exhibited the highest intra-group variability. Significant differences in lethal and sublethal responses to copper exposure were found, along with distinct forms of histological damage (e.g., steatosis, hemorrhages, fibrosis, and nuclear damage). Notably, the most genetically diverse groups (zfHS and zfRN) exhibited the highest resistance to copper-induced stress. Relying exclusively on fish from commercial breeders with uncontrolled confined populations for ecotoxicology research may lead to biased conclusions, as these factors affect the consistency and reliability of biological responses in laboratory testing. Therefore, the use of fish from potentially long-standing confined groups in research must be avoided.

Lichens are complex symbiotic systems known for synthesizing diverse secondary metabolites with documented antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities. The present study focused on Pseudevernia furfuracea, a species widely distributed across Moroccan habitats. Two hydrodistillation-derived extracts (HE1 and HE2) were analyzed through ultra-high-Performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) to characterize their metabolite composition, and their effects were evaluated on Jurkat cells, a representative human cell line of the immune system. As the results of the characterization, the main compounds identified were Caprolactam, N,N-Diethylaniline, Erucamide, and 4-Isopropylaniline. Cytotoxicity assessment revealed that both HE1 and HE2 decreased the viability of Jurkat cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The mean effective concentrations (EC50) after 24 h of treatment were 53.79 ± 2.92 µg/mL for HE1 and 59.76 ± 2.01 µg/mL for HE2. Cell death mechanisms were further examined by flow cytometry, revealing that apoptosis predominated after 24 h of treatment, progressing mainly to late apoptotic stages after 48 h. In parallel, the expression levels of key cytokine genes, including IL-2, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, were quantified at the mRNA level to evaluate potential immunomodulatory effects. Up-regulation was observed in IL-2 after exposure to both extracts for 24 and 48 h, and in the case of IFN-γ after exposure to HE2 for 24 h; in contrast, HE1 and HE2 produced down-regulation in TNF-α at 24 h. These findings suggest that HE1 and HE2 have immunomodulatory activity in Jurkat cells. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and to clarify how HE1 and HE2 influence immune responses in human systems.

In Morocco as well as in many countries located in semi-arid areas, irrigation with water from lake-reservoirs is a common agricultural practice and an important tool for farmers to improve crop yields. However, this kind of water can contain toxic bloom-forming cyanobacteria, and its use as a source for irrigation water can enable a transfer of cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) into crop plant. When microcystins are accumulated in crop plants, they pose serious human health risk. The aim of this study is to explore the potential of selected rhizobacteria strains in inoculation with Vicia faba plants to mitigate microcystins-induced phytotoxicity and health risks. Irrigation with water containing 200 µg L −1 microcystins reduced plant growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and nitrogen assimilation. Inoculation with selected rhizobacteria strains alleviated these effects, enhancing root biomass, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content, leaf quantum yield, and nitrogen content and slightly increasing GS activity. Among tested strains, Achromobacter marplatensis showed the strongest protection, reducing microcystin accumulation by approximately 36% compared to uninoculated plants. Estimated daily intake values derived from residual microcystins remained below World Health Organization safety thresholds, indicating a lowered potential risk. These findings demonstrate that soil-based inoculation with targeted rhizosphere bacteria can protect plants from microcystin-induced damage, providing a strain-specific, sustainable bioremediation strategy to maintain crop productivity and food safety in regions exposed to microcystin-contaminated irrigation water.

To support sustainable food production and improve crop yields, it is essential to explore bio-based plant growth-promoting products. Cyanobacterial biomass has shown potential to enhance soil quality and agricultural productivity. However, some cyanobacteria produce cyanotoxins, such as microcystins, cylindrospermopsin and anatoxin-a, which can adversely affect plant development depending on their concentration. This study evaluated the potential of cyanobacterial biomass as a soil amendment and plant growth stimulant by assessing growth, nutrient content and toxin accumulation in spinach and radish plants. Plants were cultivated in soil treated with no amendment, commercial fertilizer, or cyanobacterial biomass from Microcystis aeruginosa (microcystins-producer), Anabaena sp. (anatoxin-a-producer), Raphidiopsis raciborskii (non-cylindrospermopsin producer), and R. raciborskii (cylindrospermopsin-producer). While biomass additions supplied nutrients to the soil, spinach showed increased sensitivity to microcystins and anatoxin-a, with significantly reduced growth. Overall, mineral concentrations in plant tissues did not increase; most macro- and micronutrients declined, particularly in spinach shoots and radish roots (p ≥ 0.05). Vitamin C content also decreased in most treatments, except in plants treated with the non-cylindrospermopsin-producing R. raciborskii strain, where a significant increase was observed (p ≥ 0.05). Toxic biomass amendments led to the uptake of microcystins-LR and cylindrospermopsin in spinach, and cylindrospermopsin in radish, with cylindrospermopsin levels in spinach exceeding Word Health Organization's tolerable daily intake. These findings underscore the need for a previous detailed characterization of both nutrients and toxins in cyanobacterial biomass to ensure its safe and effective agricultural use, maximizing benefits while protecting food safety.

Sea anemones (Actiniaria, Cnidaria) are promising targets for biomedical research, as they produce unique bioactive compounds, including toxins and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). However, the diversity and mechanisms underlying their chemical defenses remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigate the proteomic profiles of the unexplored sea anemone Actinia fragacea by analyzing its venom nematocyst extract, tissues, and mucus secretion. A total of 4011 different proteins were identified, clustered into 3383 protein groups. Among the 83 putative toxins detected, actinoporins, neurotoxins, and phospholipase A2 were uncovered, as well as two novel zinc metalloproteinases with two specific domains (ShK) associated with potassium channel inhibition. Common Gene Ontology (GO) terms were related to immune responses, cell adhesion, protease inhibition, and tissue regeneration. Furthermore, 1406 of the 13,276 distinct peptides identified were predicted as potential AMPs, including a putative Aurelin-like AMP localized within the nematocysts. This discovery highlights and strengthens the evidence for a cnidarian-exclusive Aurelin peptide family. Several other bioactive compounds with distinctive defense functions were also detected, including enzymes, pattern recognition proteins (PRPs), and neuropeptides. This study provides the first proteome map of A. fragacea, offering a critical foundation for exploring novel bioactive compounds and valuable insights into its molecular complexity.