Background Citizen science is increasingly recognized as a valuable scientific approach across disciplines, contexts, and research areas. However, its rapid expansion and diverse methodologies make it challenging to establish a single definition or universal criteria for what constitutes citizen science. Building on our previously published work that detailed findings from a vignette study used to identify the ECSA Characteristics, this paper specifically focuses on the descriptive results from that study and examines the Characteristics in relation to the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science. Methods We developed the ECSA Characteristics through a vignette study, a survey method that captures diverse perspectives on complex topics. We then reviewed the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science, a broad framework for best practices in citizen science, to identify its gaps and limitations, showing how the ECSA Characteristics can help address them. Results The results highlight the disciplinary distinctions as well as ambiguities surrounding various citizen science practices. In this context, it is beneficial to adopt an inclusive approach and language that allows the audience to define its own criteria depending on its needs, intended use and specific circumstances. Conclusions The ECSA Characteristics were developed in a spirit of openness; identifying areas with diverse and even conflicting views was central to this practice. We recommend their use as a whole set and contend that no one area or characteristic is more important than the other. They should be considered as a toolkit with examples that can guide efforts towards defining citizen science for a specific context and purpose. They are built on the ECSA 10 Principles, addressing some of their gaps and limitations, while at the same time acknowledging the need to update and improve the 10 Principles based on developments in the field.

Background Citizen science is increasingly recognized as a valuable scientific approach across disciplines, contexts, and research areas. However, its rapid expansion and diverse methodologies make it challenging to establish a single definition or universal criteria for what constitutes citizen science. This paper introduces the ECSA Characteristics of Citizen Science, offering a nuanced exploration of the field to support stakeholders, including policymakers and research funders, in understanding and applying citizen science effectively. Methods We developed the ECSA Characteristics through a vignette study, a survey method that captures diverse perspectives on complex topics. We then reviewed the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science, a broad framework for best practices in citizen science, to identify its gaps and limitations, showing how the ECSA Characteristics can help address them. Results The results highlight the disciplinary distinctions as well as ambiguities surrounding various citizen science practices. Two challenges exist when defining citizen science. A very strict definition could exclude valuable practices, hindering innovation and discouraging public participation. Conversely, a loose definition might make it difficult for specific audiences to apply it effectively in their own contexts. Therefore, it is beneficial to adopt an inclusive approach and language that allows the audience to define its own criteria depending on its needs, intended use and specific circumstances. Conclusions: The ECSA Characteristics were developed in a spirit of openness; identifying areas with diverse and even conflicting views was central to this practice. We recommend their use as a whole set and contend that no one area or characteristic is more important than the other. They should be considered as a toolkit with examples that can guide efforts towards defining citizen science for a specific context and purpose. They are built on the ECSA 10 Principles, addressing some of their gaps and limitations, while at the same time acknowledging the need to update and improve the 10 Principles based on developments in the field.

Background:Citizen science is increasingly recognized as a valuable scientific approach across disciplines, contexts, and research areas. However, its rapid expansion and diverse methodologies make it challenging to establish a single definition or universal criteria for what constitutes citizen science. Building on our previously published work that detailed findings from a vignette study used to identify the ECSA Characteristics, this paper specifically focuses on the descriptive results from that study and examines the Characteristics in relation to the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science. Methods:We developed the ECSA Characteristics through a vignette study, a survey method that captures diverse perspectives on complex topics. We then reviewed the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science, a broad framework for best practices in citizen science, to identify its gaps and limitations, showing how the ECSA Characteristics can help address them. Results:The results highlight the disciplinary distinctions as well as ambiguities surrounding various citizen science practices. In this context, it is beneficial to adopt an inclusive approach and language that allows the audience to define its own criteria depending on its needs, intended use and specific circumstances. Conclusions:The ECSA Characteristics were developed in a spirit of openness; identifying areas with diverse and even conflicting views was central to this practice. We recommend their use as a whole set and contend that no one area or characteristic is more important than the other. They should be considered as a toolkit with examples that can guide efforts towards defining citizen science for a specific context and purpose. They are built on the ECSA 10 Principles, addressing some of their gaps and limitations, while at the same time acknowledging the need to update and improve the 10 Principles based on developments in the field.

Background Citizen science is increasingly recognized as a valuable scientific approach across disciplines, contexts, and research areas. However, its rapid expansion and diverse methodologies make it challenging to establish a single definition or universal criteria for what constitutes citizen science. Building on our previously published work that detailed findings from a vignette study used to identify the ECSA Characteristics, this paper specifically focuses on the descriptive results from that study and examines the Characteristics in relation to the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science. Methods We developed the ECSA Characteristics through a vignette study, a survey method that captures diverse perspectives on complex topics. We then reviewed the ECSA 10 Principles of Citizen Science, a broad framework for best practices in citizen science, to identify its gaps and limitations, showing how the ECSA Characteristics can help address them. Results The results highlight the disciplinary distinctions as well as ambiguities surrounding various citizen science practices. In this context, it is beneficial to adopt an inclusive approach and language that allows the audience to define its own criteria depending on its needs, intended use and specific circumstances. Conclusions The ECSA Characteristics were developed in a spirit of openness; identifying areas with diverse and even conflicting views was central to this practice. We recommend their use as a whole set and contend that no one area or characteristic is more important than the other. They should be considered as a toolkit with examples that can guide efforts towards defining citizen science for a specific context and purpose. They are built on the ECSA 10 Principles, addressing some of their gaps and limitations, while at the same time acknowledging the need to update and improve the 10 Principles based on developments in the field.

Apex predators are particularly vulnerable to environmental stressors due to their high trophic position. Understanding both exposure and physiological impacts is essential to support the long-term success of conservation efforts. We investigated contaminant levels and health indicators in a recently reintroduced osprey Pandion haliaetus population in Central Italy, a top predator in aquatic food-webs. From 2015 to 2022, we applied a standardized, multidisciplinary monitoring framework to 55 wild-born osprey chicks, integrating non-destructive blood and feather sampling with trace element and POPs analyses, genotoxicity biomarkers, biological and behavioral metrics (e.g., sex, morphometrics, GPS-tracked adults' space use). Among trace elements, Se showed the highest blood concentrations (4.5 ± 2.1 mg/kg dw), while Cu predominated in feathers (11.5 ± 2.7 mg/kg dw); both Cd and Pb were consistently low. Hg and Se showed significant differences among breeding sites. Significant positive correlations were observed in blood for HgSe, HgPb, PbSe, and in feathers for CdCu. A low frequency of micronuclei (0.4 ± 1.1 ‰) was observed, with lobed nuclei accounting for 81 % of observed abnormalities (mean: 26.5 ± 24.1 ‰). Hematological profiles were dominated by heterophils, followed by lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, and basophils, with a mean heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio of 1.3 ± 0.6 and thrombocyte counts averaging 246.1 ± 132.9 ‰. The most abundant POPs were PCB153 > PCB138 > PCB180 > PCB149 + 118 > PCB187, which together accounted for almost 40 % of total PCBs on average, confirming multi-year exposure in nestlings. Among DDTs, pp'DDE alone constituted between 15 % to 63 % of the total DDTs. We highlight the importance of integrative biomonitoring for assessing environmental quality and health in this critically endangered population, offering new insights into contaminant dynamics in reintroduced top predators and emphasizing the need for long-term, ecotoxicologically informed conservation strategies.

This report presents the first complete natal dispersal trajectory of a female Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus, tracked in real time from fledging to first breeding using high-resolution continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry. The bird’s first flight occurred on 26 July 2024, initiating a 31-day post-fledging dependence phase (PFDP), followed by a 23-day pre-migratory phase (PMP), during which it explored areas up to 280.8 km from the nest and eventually settled ca. 190 km away in the Sirente-Velino Regional Park. From there, autumn migration began on 18 September 2024. The bird reached its first wintering site in Mali by 15 October. It used four wintering areas over 178 days, with a winter home range of 37,615.02 km2. Spring migration started on 11 April 2025 and lasted 21 days, ending with arrival in the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park (Central Italy) on 2 May. The bird used two main sites during the pre-breeding phase (PRBP) before laying eggs on 2 June 2025. The natal dispersal distance, from birthplace to nest site, was 151.28 km. Over 311 days, it covered a total of 14,522.23 km. These findings highlight the value of advanced telemetry in revealing early-life movement ecology and are useful for understanding species-specific patterns of survival, reproduction, and space use and can inform conservation actions.

The domestic cat (Felis catus) descends from the African wildcat subspecies Felis lybica lybica. Its global distribution alongside humans testifies to its successful adaptation to anthropogenic environments. Uncertainty remains regarding whether domestic cats originated in the Levant, Egypt or elsewhere in its natural range, and on the timing and circumstances of their dispersal into Europe. By analysing 87 ancient and modern cat genomes, we demonstrate that domestic cats did not spread to Europe with Neolithic farmers, as previously thought. Conversely, our results suggest that they were introduced to Europe over the last 2,000 years, most likely from North Africa. We also demonstrate that a separate earlier (1st millennium BCE) introduction of wildcats from Northwest Africa originated the present-day wild population in Sardinia. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

The Sardinian wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) belongs to a felid North-African lineage that reached the Mediterranean island in Neolithic times. While numerous studies have been conducted on the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), very little is known about the Sardinian wildcat ecology, genetics, and conservation status. Therefore, it is paramount to investigate the current distribution and genetics of the Sardinian population of F. s. lybica, previously described as var. sarda. In this work we assessed morphological and molecular traits of Sardinian wildcats, ascertained areas of species presence on the island, and investigated possible occurrence of hybridization with domestic cats. An integrated approach was adopted, involving questionnaire distribution and interviews to local people, and the morphological evaluation of road-killed individuals combined with their genetic typing using 29 polymorphic autosomal microsatellite loci. Genotypes were then analyzed by Bayesian clustering and assignment analyses. Questionnaires and interviews allowed us to build a preliminary alleged distribution map of the species and select candidate areas for non-invasive monitoring. The morphological and genetic characterization of road kills and museum specimens allowed us to identify pure individuals and recent wild × domestic hybrids, paving the way for better characterizing the Sardinian wildcat. Further steps of the research will allow us to shed light on this elusive presence on the island and enhance its conservation.

Wetlands are among the world’s valuable ecosystems for biodiversity conservation, but they are also among the most threatened habitats, heavily impacted by human pressures and threats. The Mediterranean basin features numerous small lakes, ponds, and pools, whose number and quality are decreasing at an alarming rate, and whose biodiversity is often little or not at all known. As a better knowledge of the biotic components of these minor water bodies is necessary, with this aim a phytosociological survey campaign was carried out in southern Tuscany (central Italy), an area where little information is available on the vegetation of aquatic and palustrine biotopes. Numerous previously unknown water bodies were located and surveyed in this work, while others already known were resurveyed. These investigations allowed us to identify 28 plant communities which can be classified into seven syntaxonomic classes. A new subassociation (Ranunculo ophioglossifolii-Callitrichetum stagnalis subass. ranunculetosum peltati) is described. The identification of the site-associated Natura2000 habitats led to the recognition of five habitats of conservation interest at the national and European level. The results of these investigations will improve the knowledge of the flora and vegetation of these small but valuable natural areas, providing a basis for their conservation.

Assessing individual differences and variability in animal movement patterns is essential to improve our un-derstanding of the evolution and ontogeny of migratory strategies.In long-distance migratory species,fledged juveniles often rely on an extremely restricted time span to learn the essential skills for survival and to prepare for migration,possibly the most risky phase of their lives.Collecting detailed information on the dynamics of the movements during the crucial pre-migratory phase is hence essential to understand the solutions developed by migratory species in different environmental contexts.Here,we used high-resolution GPS/GSM transmitters to collect information on the movement ecology of seven juvenile Montagu's Harriers(Circus pygargus)born in central Italy,investigating their early life stages,namely the post-fledging dependence period(PFDP)and the pre-migratory phase(PMP),until autumn migration.After fledging,individuals showed high variability(both in space and time)in home range size,daily distances covered(6.88±11.44 km/day),distance from the nest(1.45±2.8 km)and PFDP length(23.3±5.3 days).Residence time at the natal site significantly decreased,while time interval between revists in the natal area significantly increased,as the PFDP progressed.During the PMP,explored areas and distance from the nest(max value up to 320.8 km)varied among individuals,despite daily distances covered(27±40 km/day)and time allocation between traveling(60.7％)and foraging(39.3％)were similar across individuals.The PMP lasted 38±14 days.Land cover composition of foraging locations was mostly represented by agricultural lands(～78.2％),though habitat use differed among individuals.More than 76％of such locations were outside protected areas.This individual-based tracking study represents a novel approach that improves previous knowledge based on field studies on the early life stages of the Montagu's Harrier.High inter-individual variability in movement patterns,broad-range exploratory movements and foraging locations outside the protected area network make the application of standard conservation measures difficult,raising concerns about the long-term preservation of this vulnerable migratory species in Italy.

Identifying determinants of key phenotypic indicators driving animal population dynamics is fundamental to address measures aimed at mitigating human-wildlife interactions. In Mediterranean areas, summer drought reduces the availability of water and food resources for wild ungulates, potentially affecting body conditions. Since summer is a crucial period for the nursing/weaning of offspring, a seasonal bottleneck for ungulates would be expected to occur, especially in females. However, data on fluctuations of ungulate body mass during summer are scarce. We investigated the effects of summer progression, aridity, population density, and land use on body mass variation of adult/yearling wild boar (Sus scrofa) in a mixed forested-rural Mediterranean protected area, over a 16-year period (2007-2022). Data were gathered from individuals harvested during population control management actions, in summer. In contrast with our predictions, no consistent mass loss was observed throughout the summer. According to expectations, body mass was favored by decreasing aridity in the previous 3 months. In males, the positive effect of rainfall was mitigated by population density. Females experienced mass gain in non-arid years, mass loss in arid years, and no change in "average" years. The importance of edge habitats located at the interface between wooded and cultivated areas was confirmed by a positive relationship between female body mass and ecotone availability. The results indicate that, in a mixed forested-rural area, wild boar could maintain, or even increase, their body mass during summer. Moreover, findings emphasize the crucial role of rainfall in modulating a key driver of population dynamics for this ungulate in Mediterranean areas.

Citizen science (CS) initiatives are diverse, leading to a complex landscape of approaches and terminology. To address this complexity and foster a shared understanding, criteria were co-created with CS researchers, practitioners and citizen scientists to guide project inclusion on online CS platforms. At the ECSA2024 conference workshop, participants discussed the utility of these criteria, sharing experiences and reflections. The workshop employed a fishbowl exercise followed by a world cafe setup to delve into key topics such as project evaluation and progression, criteria and terminology application, and potential barriers to inclusion. Participants expressed caution regarding mandatory criteria, emphasizing the need for flexibility, particularly in the social sciences and humanities. While some criteria may enhance project communication and funding prospects, concerns were raised about the eurocentric nature and global applicability of the criteria. Despite limited familiarity and implementation of existing criteria, there is a growing understanding of their potential importance and usefulness within the CS community. Challenges remain regarding implementation processes and project exclusion concerns, but positive examples showcase the potential benefits of embracing criteria in CS networks and platforms.

Acquiring up-to-date information on the distribution of a species is an issue of paramount importance to set up proper conservation strategies and to assess its conservation status over time. The European wildcat has recently expanded its distribution in different parts of its range in Italy, including the Northern Apennines area. The current study represents the first wildcat systematic monitoring in the central part of Northern Apennines. Non-invasive genetic sampling—based both on valerian and catnip lures—was applied, integrated with camera trapping within two Regional Parks. This approach is needed in order to obtain hair samples to be genetically analyzed, since cross-breeding with domestic cats can make wildcat identification based only on coat characteristics misleading. Videos obtained from camera traps allowed the identification of several individuals (image capture rate of 1.04/100 trap-nights), including at least one female. Hair samples were only collected in April–May using catnip as an attractant, whereas the valerian-based solution used did not yield the expected results (i.e., attracting wildcats and stimulating their rubbing behavior to allow hair collection). These results allowed for the first time the genetic confirmation of a pure wildcat in the study area. Domestic cat presence (image capture rate of 1.4/100 trap-nights) was also assessed in the same locations, posing a possible threat for wildcat conservation at the expanding margin of its distribution. Our findings confirm the effectiveness of the integration of multiple monitoring techniques for wildcat detection and highlight the need for a continued monitoring of the species, especially in newly colonized areas.

Non‐invasive genetic sampling is an increasingly common approach in wildlife research. It allows the gathering of first‐hand data on wild mammalian populations without capturing or handling individuals. For this reason, it has proved to be particularly useful when applied to elusive species living at low population densities and/or hard to identify in the field. The European wildcat represents an interesting case study in this respect. Several papers have been produced in the last decades, in which non‐invasive genetic sampling has been applied. Nevertheless, evidence from different case studies presents a complex scenario, where the efficiency of the method can vary considerably. This paper aimed to analyse possible interpretations of such differences and to identify potential drivers and barriers. 20 papers on the subject have been reviewed and compared, although differences in several details reported in the examined papers limited an in‐depth comparison. The review showed that the overlap of the study period with the reproductive season does not affect the final results of lure stick hair sampling research on the European wildcat. Moreover, valerian lure sticks generally provided positive results in the Continental ecoregion, whereas, in the Mediterranean and Atlantic regions, outcomes were absent or very scarce. Most of the other working hypotheses remain still plausible, despite not yet being definitely provable. Setting up future wildcat monitoring schemes based on effective non‐invasive genetic sampling in different biogeographical regions of Europe is certainly a scope to be pursued. Some suggestions are provided in this respect (e.g. the set of parameters needed to allow further comparisons; the need to test other types of attractants, to make the application of the method possible where the use of valerian was proven to be inefficient or scarcely efficient, in order to allow a better comparison of future results).

As the citizen science (CS) community flourishes, there is an opportunity to reflect on how practitioners can widen participation and work with participants as co-researchers to investigate and take action around global challenges. Through the lens of one CS case study, the X-Polli:Nation project, we report on how technologists, ecologists, and education specialists repurposed older projects by cross-pollinating ideas with children and teachers in the UK and in Italy to create Artificial Intelligence–enhanced tools appropriate for teaching sustainability in schools. Taking part in an actionable CS cycle, children learn about pollinating insects, record scientific data, create flowering habitats, and communicate their importance. Through this process, X-Polli:Nation demonstrates relevance across a number of Sustainable Development Goals (e.g., SDG 4, Quality Education; SDG 10, Reducing Inequality; and SDG 15, Life on Land), and applies the underlying SDG principle “leave no one behind.” We go on to investigate if, and how, young people would like to deepen their engagement with the SDGs, and we report that taking action and communicating the importance of the SDGs were of paramount interest. The challenge of building sustainability into an already crowded curriculum can be alleviated by understanding its value, considering the audience, and adapting to new contexts. The considerable benefits include raising awareness about global sustainability issues and giving children the confidence to become passionate environmental stewards, all the while extending the life of older projects and thus making CS methods sustainable too.

Reintroductions represent an opportunity to restore local biodiversity and reverse the effect of taxa extinction. However, they need feasibility and monitoring plans before and during their implementation to ensure concrete and lasting results. During the 20th century, the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) underwent a severe population decline in many European countries due to direct persecution and coast exploitation. In the 1960s–1970s, it was declared extinct as a breeder in Italy. In 2004, the Maremma Regional Park (Tuscany, central Italy) started a reintroduction project by capturing and releasing, from 2006 to 2010, 33 juvenile Corsican ospreys on the southern coast of Tuscany. The settlement of the first breeding pair in 2011 was the initial sign of the success of the reintroduction project, then further pairs settled from 2011 onward. A total of 81 feather or blood samples were collected for DNA extraction from both translocated (2006–2010) and newborn individuals (2011–2021). Individuals were analyzed at 16 microsatellite loci to verify any changes in genetic variability over time and to set out a protocol for the reconstruction of kinship for conservation and management purposes. We did not observe a reduction in genetic variability between the two sampling periods, although we found a slight sign of the founder effect in the reestablished population. A strong genetic differentiation was observed between this Mediterranean population and an injured osprey from a Northern European population, thus confirming the importance of considering the local genetic pool in any reintroduction project. Monogamous behavior was confirmed by family reconstruction, which allowed the identification of clear kinship relationships. Our findings indirectly inform on the genetic variability of the population during the 16-year period from the start of the project and provide useful insights for its long-term conservation.

Conservation translocations ( e. g., restocking, reintroductions) represent efficient tools to prevent the extinction or favouring the return of previously extirpated populations into the wild. Evaluating demographic parameters of translocated populations is a key issue to assess and monitor their conservation status and to provide evidences useful to implement management actions aimed at long-term conservation results. We report first data on survival estimates and related mortality causes for a reintroduced population of Eurasian griffon vultures ( Gyps fulvus) in the central-southern Apennine, Italy, from satellite telemetry data. Twenty vultures have been fitted with solar-powered Global Positioning System (GPS) tags in Pollino National Park (PNP, southern Italy, N = 9) and Monte Velino Reserve (MVR, central Italy, N = 11). Survival has been estimated on a total amount of 173,568 GPS fixes from December 2016 to October 2020 (1415 days) using the Fleming-Harrington estimator. Five, out of 20 vultures, died by poisoning (40%), collision with wind turbines (20%) and of unknown causes (40%). Two birds dispersed from MVR to France (though they later came back) and one from PNP to Croatia. Estimated survival rate across the whole study period was 0.709 (±0.11, SE; 0.523–0.961, 95% CI), and annual survival rate was 0.915 (±0.06, SE; 0.846–0.990, 95% CI). No significant differences in survival rates have been detected according to sex or age. As mortality in our study was mainly human-caused, we urge relevant institutions and agencies to strengthen and effectively establish anti-poison strategies, as well as implementing mitigation and prevention measures for the existing and planned wind farms. The establishment of a long-term viable population in the central-southern Apennines will depend upon both lower levels of human-caused mortality and habitat preservation.

As part of a long-term monitoring program, more than 80 Mediterranean ospreys Pandion haliaetus (both adults and juveniles) were tagged with GPS-GSM transmitters and tracked to study their spatiotemporal behaviour. Here we document the peculiar and unexpected migration movements performed by three inexperienced (juvenile/immature) individuals, who crossed the open sea “against the flow”, in the opposite direction to that foreseen for the given season. Using a combination of GPS tracking data and weather information, we found that such movements were linked to particular meteorological conditions occurring over the Mediterranean Sea during migration. Mean values of wind gust of approximately 20 km/h and moderate tailwinds seem to have mediated the onset of the movements, facilitating the flight of ospreys over water. Our findings suggest that both weather conditions (sidewinds) and the inexperience of the birds explain these long migration movements performed towards unexpected directions over the open sea. We conclude that migratory capabilities and the ability to cope with external conditions may lead inexperienced birds to perform extensive and tortuous dispersal/explotrative movements during both first autumn and spring migration.

Poaching can have major impacts on wild animal populations and is pervasive in tropical regions. The spatial distribution of this furtive activity is particularly difficult to estimate in large natural areas, and this hinders the development of effective anti-poaching strategies. We used passive acoustic recorders in combination with occupancy models to develop a predictive map of poaching presence in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of Argentina and Brazil. Poaching activity was measured by gunshots detected by the recorders that were active for 7 months (August 2018 to February 2019) on 90 sampling sites distributed in an area of 4637 km2. A total of 15,936 h of landscape sounds were recorded, detecting gunshots at 43 sites. Using occupancy models, we evaluated eight variables that might influence poaching occurrence and detectability. Poaching was higher in areas with higher accessibility, with a higher proportion of rural areas, and far from control posts of park rangers. The detectability of gunshots was lower during periods of heavy rainfall. We validated the occupancy models through field surveys conducted in the same period resulting in a predictive capacity of 82% of our best model. Our results show that this region is under very high poaching pressure, even within the protected area's boundaries and that urgent actions must be taken. The methods we used for estimating poaching pressure and the predictive maps developed could serve as a tool for developing and implementing anti-poaching strategies to reduce this pervasive threat.

Like most small felids, the European wildcat Felis silvestris is a rather elusive species, poorly detectable in the wild, due to several aspects of its biology. Camera trapping can represent a suitable tool to understand temporal activity patterns and habitat preferences of such elusive species. We used intensive camera trapping over two full years to investigate spatio-temporal patterns of the wildcat in a Mediterranean coastal protected area (Maremma Regional Park, central Italy). At the seasonal scale, the wildcat showed a marked twilight activity in summer and winter (mating period), and nocturnal activity in autumn. Conversely, a peak of activity during the day, i.e., in broad daylight, was reported in spring. Reproductive females may limit their nocturnal movements in spring to increase protection from predators to their kittens at the den, although further data are required to support this conclusion. At seasonal, semestral, and yearly temporal scales, the frequency of wildcat detections increased along with availability of shrubwood. These results emphasise the importance for this small felid of areas with dense vegetation cover (Mediterranean maquis and shrubwood, in our study area). Areas densely covered with shrubby vegetation are expected to provide benefits to this elusive small cat in terms of reduced human disturbance (included tourists), availability of prey (e.g., small mammals), as well as shelter, essential to ensure protection towards potential larger predators.