Relationships with spouses, family, and friends influence health, yet their effects are often assessed separately. Relationship quality fluctuates over time, and while some couples effectively navigate these ups and downs, others may experience stress and strain. Guided by dyadic stress and support frameworks, we examined how positive and negative spousal, friend, and family ties contribute to subjective health within and across the first 16 years of marriage. We took a within-person approach to examine how ties beyond couples' marriages protect or wear on health, particularly in the years with more marital troubles. Both partners from 373 newlywed couples (199 Black American and 174 White American couples) participated in a longitudinal study and completed questionnaires in Years 1, 3, 7, and 16 of marriage. Dyadic multilevel models showed those with greater spousal responsiveness, lower marital distress, and lower family tension had better subjective health. Husbands' greater family support and lower family tension did not compensate for the negative health effects of low spousal responsiveness, but spousal responsiveness compensated for husbands' less supportive or more tense families. For wives, the combination of both lower spousal responsiveness and family support predicted poorer subjective health, on average, meanwhile wives reported the best health in the years with both more spousal responsiveness and family support. Thus, husbands' spousal ties were more health protective than family ties, whereas wives' health was connected to both spousal and family ties-for better or worse. These findings illustrate gendered health effects in the early to middle years of marriage. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

We applied marital stress and stability frameworks to investigate how spousal, family, and friend dynamics contribute to marital instability risks during the first 16 years of marriage. Using longitudinal data from the Early Years of Marriage Project and a within-person approach, we examined how family and friend relationships temper or amplify marital risks in couples' more troublesome years. We also considered the sociocultural contexts of gender and race. Both spouses from 373 newlywed mixed-gender couples (199 Black American, 174 White American couples) completed questionnaires in Years 1, 3, 7, and 16 of marriage. Dyadic multilevel models showed marital distress and instability increased over time, while spousal responsiveness, friend support, and family support decreased across the 16 years. Wives also had poorer marital and family evaluations than husbands. In the years with less responsiveness or more marital distress, having low family support or high family-related tension intensified negative marital effect; in contrast, having more family support or less family-related tension helped protect marriages. Nevertheless, marital instability risks were lowest in years with less distress or more spousal responsiveness, regardless of family support or tension. The benefits of spousal responsiveness and negative effects of family-related tension were particularly potent for Black spouses, showing strong marital and family effects on instability, for better or worse. These findings demonstrate that more positive and less negative marital dynamics may protect spouses from unsupportive or strained families. In contrast, lacking supportive family ties may be especially harmful to spouses in less responsive or more distressing marriages.

The self-expansion model has generated hundreds of studies on the benefits of relationships for the self, but few have explicitly made the link from relationship quality to well-being. In this article we focus on how doing self-expanding activities with a romantic partner can enhance relationship quality and, in turn, enhance well-being. First, we review the basic model; then, we present a section on the overall well-being benefits of strengthening relationships; then, we go through the various areas of study of self-expansion for couples highlighting for each the studies that show not just greater marital satisfaction, but the effect on various specific well-being effects. After one develops a relationship, one becomes accustomed to this self-expansion through including the partner into the self. As a result, the excitement of this inclusion slows over time, and thus relationships can become dull. But we argue that a major way to reinvigorate relationships is by doing novel and challenging (self-expanding) activities together with one’s partner, so that the self-expansion becomes associated with the relationship. We then briefly review many studies (experiments, daily diary, and others) supporting this principle: shared self-expanding activities increase relationship quality. Finally, we briefly discuss research showing that enhancing relationship quality increases well-being. This emphasis on well-being is important because it can help researchers understand the mechanisms behind how a specific form of improving relationships contributes to well-being.

This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Highly Sensitive Child-Rating System (HSC-RS), the existence of sensitivity groups, and the characterization of sensitivity at behavioral, genetic, and physiological levels in 541 preschoolers (M(SD)age = 3.56(0.27); 45%male; 87%Caucasian). Temperament, genetic, cortisol, and electroencephalography asymmetry data were collected in subsamples (n = 94-476). Results showed a reliable observational measure of sensitivity. Confirmatory factor and latent class analysis supported a one-factor solution and three sensitivity groups, that are a low (23.3%), medium (54.2%), and a high (22.5%) sensitivity group. Hierarchical regression analyses showed moderate associations between HSC-RS and observed temperament traits (i.e., behavioral level). In addition, a small negative association between HSC-RS and a genome-wide association study polygenic risk score (GWAS PGS) for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder was found. No relations with candidate genes, other GWAS PGS phenotypes, and physiological measures were found. Implications of our findings and possible explanations for a lack of these associations are discussed.

Despite limited empirical support, vacations are marketed as beneficial for romantic partners. Using the self-expansion model as a foundation, we tested how self-expanding (e.g., novel, interesting, challenging) vacation experiences are associated with passion, physical intimacy, and relationship satisfaction. Study 1 (n = 238 partners) found that higher individual self-expanding experiences on vacations predicted higher post-vacation romantic passion and relationship satisfaction for couples traveling with their partners, but not those that did not travel together. Study 2 examined 102 romantic dyads that traveled together and found that higher self-expanding experiences on vacations predicted more post-vacation physical intimacy. Our findings advance self-expansion research and provide evidence for the tourism industry to design and promote self-expanding vacation experiences for couples seeking improved relationships and meaningful vacations.

Sensitivity to environmental influences varies among individuals, with some more responsive to both negative and positive experiences. Individual differences in sensitivity are linked to psychological, physiological, and genetic factors and can be measured using the Highly Sensitive Person (HSP) scale. Over three decades, the conceptualization of sensitivity has shifted from a unidimensional to a multidimensional trait, necessitating a revision of the original scale. This study introduces and validates the revised HSP scale (HSP-R) using a UK and USA sample of 1,000 adults. Exploratory factor analysis on a calibration subsample (n = 600) yielded a 6-factor, 18-item structure, which was confirmed in a validation subsample (n = 400). The HSP-R measures six dimensions of sensitivity: Sensitivity to Details, Depth of Processing, Social Sensitivity, Sensitivity to Positive Experiences, Emotional Reactivity, and Overstimulation. It demonstrates robust psychometric properties, aligns with theoretical frameworks, and provides incremental validity beyond the Big Five traits.

Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a biological/temperament trait that is associated with greater awareness of and reactivity to the environment, which results in amplified responses to various stimuli, and possibly medications. We investigated the relationship between SPS and medication sensitivity in three studies. Participants (ages 18–81) were recruited from university (Study 1: N = 125; Study 2: N = 214) and online (Study 3: N = 351) samples. In each study, participants completed a medication sensitivity scale, the standard highly sensitive person (HSP) scale to assess SPS, and a negative affectivity (NA) scale as a control variable. All three studies found moderate, significant correlations between SPS and medication sensitivity (r = 0.34, p < 0.001: r = 0.21, p = 0.003; r = 0.36, p < 0.001, respectively). Correlations remained significant, and similar, when controlling for NA and gender; and there were no significant interactions with gender. In sum, our results suggest that SPS is associated with medication sensitivity, even when considering NA and gender. Thus, future work might consider SPS when investigating recommended medication, medication dosage, effectiveness, and adverse drug reactions.

Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a trait associated with enhanced responsivity to environmental stimuli and the tendency to pause before acting. However, qualitative data suggest that some who are high in SPS may also be high in sensation seeking (SS), a trait characterized by the seeking of novel and intense experiences. Thus, this online study examined SPS and SS among 214 individuals (mean age, 30), using the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (the standard SPS measure), a standard measure of sensation seeking (ZKA-PQ); and the newly developed Sensation-Seeking Scale for Highly Sensitive Persons (SSS/HSP). We also measured risk-taking, impulsivity, and neuroticism, as control variables. Results showed that SPS (controlling or not controlling for neuroticism) was moderately negatively correlated with the ZKA-PQ, risk-taking and impulsivity; but positively associated with negative urgency -the tendency to act impulsively due to negative affect. Also, the validity of the SSS/HSP was supported, as it showed a strong positive correlation with standard measures of SS and risk-taking, a moderate association with impulsivity, and (as it was designed to do) a near zero correlation with SPS. In conclusion, although some individuals with SPS may express high SS, the two traits are largely separate; and the SSS/HSP is a reliable measure of SS, having items better-suited for the highly sensitive.

People differ in their response to experiences with some being generally more and some less sensitive. We present an integrated theoretical perspective on Environmental Sensitivity and provide new empirical evidence. Results across three studies (total N = 910) suggest that sensitivity can be measured reliably and validly with the 12-item Highly Sensitive Person scale (HSP-12). People scoring high on the HSP-12 are more sensitive to both adverse and positive experiences. Higher scores on the HSP-12 are reflected in high Neuroticism, particularly anxiety and vulnerability, and high Openness, particularly imagination, artistic interests and emotionality. We conclude that findings confirm the theoretical proposition that people differ in their sensitivity to environmental influences, and propose a number of future directions to advance research.

The present studies examined the often-implicit notion that people think about couples as discrete entities, distinct from the individuals therein-a concept we refer to as couple-level identities. Findings suggest that people perceive both their own and other couples as distinct units (Study 1) that can possess dyadic qualities unique from those of either couple member. Exploring the implications of these identities, Studies 2 and 3 examined how couple-level identities (beyond the identities of the individuals) influence social judgment (e.g., cognitive biases). Finally, Study 4's findings suggest that perceptions of discrete couple-level identities are natural parts of everyday social cognition. Together, results suggest the need to consider couple-level identities in research on the self, social perception, and close relationships.

In this paper we review the self-expansion model in the context of close relationships, focusing primarily on work in the last 20 years, considering throughout variation in our samples across cultures and other demographics—both in existing studies and in potential implications for future research. The self-expansion model has two key principles. The first half of the paper focuses on the motivational principle: The model theorizes that people have a fundamental desire to expand the self—that is, to increase their self-efficacy, perspectives, competence, and resources, and this often occurs through relationships in general. The second half of the paper focuses on the inclusion-of-other-in-the-self principle, in that a major means of self-expansion is through close relationships, when one’s partner’s identities, perspectives, skills, and resources become to some extent “included in the self” as also one’s own. For each principle we briefly describe its foundational research support and then explore the extensive, significant work of the last 20 years substantially expanding and deepening the implications of the model. The majority (although with some interesting exceptions) of studies have fallen short of testing the universal breadth of the model. As we review the research, we consider where the studies were conducted and with what kinds of populations. Where there are data from diverse populations, the overall pattern of results are generally similar. However, there were individual differences found within the populations studied, such as in attachment style, that affected the operation of both principles. Since there are well known differences in the distribution of such individual differences across populations of many types, it is quite likely that while the basic patterns may not differ, future research will show different degrees of operation in different populations.

Previous research using functional MRI identified brain regions associated with sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), a proposed normal phenotype trait. To further validate SPS, to characterize it anatomically, and to test the usefulness in psychology of methodologies that assess axonal properties, the present study correlated SPS proxy questionnaire scores (adjusted for neuroticism) with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures. Participants (n = 408) from the Human Connectome Project were studied. Voxelwise analysis showed that mean- and radial diffusivity correlated positively with SPS scores in the right and left subcallosal and anterior–ventral cingulum bundle, and the right forceps minor of the corpus callosum, all frontal cortex areas generally underlying emotion, motivation, and cognition. Further analyses showed correlations throughout medial frontal cortical regions in the right and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex, including the superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, uncinate, and arcuate fasciculus. Fractional anisotropy was negatively correlated with SPS scores in white matter (WM) of the right premotor/motor/somatosensory/supramarginal gyrus regions. Region of interest (ROI) analysis showed small effect sizes (− 0.165 to 0.148) in WM of the precuneus and inferior frontal gyrus. Other ROI effects were found in the dorsal-, ventral visual pathways and primary auditory cortex. The results reveal that in a large group of participants, axonal microarchitectural differences can be identified with SPS traits that are subtle and in the range of typical behavior. The results suggest that the heightened sensory processing in people who show that SPS may be influenced by the microstructure of WM in specific cortical regions. Although previous fMRI studies had identified most of these areas, the DTI results put a new focus on brain areas related to attention and cognitive flexibility, empathy, emotion, and first levels of sensory processing, as in primary auditory cortex. Psychological trait characterization may benefit from DTI methodology by identifying influential brain systems for traits.

Some children are more affected than others by their upbringing due to their increased sensitivity to the environment. More sensitive children are at heightened risk for the development of internalizing problems, particularly when experiencing unsupportive parenting. However, little is known about how the interplay between children’s sensitivity and parenting leads to higher levels of depressive symptoms. In the current study, we investigated the interaction between early parenting and children’s sensitivity on levels of depressive symptomatology in middle childhood, exploring the role of rumination as a possible mediator in a community sample. Participants included 196 USA resident families, from a middle class and mostly European–American background, and their healthy children, followed up from age 3 until 9 and 12 years. Environmental sensitivity was assessed observationally when children were 3 years old. Parenting style was based on parent-report at the age of 3 years. When children were nine, they completed questionnaires on rumination and depressive symptoms (repeated at 12 years). Analyses were run applying a Bayesian approach. Children’s sensitivity interacted with permissive parenting in predicting rumination at age 9. Rumination, in turn, was associated with depressive symptoms at age 9 and, to a lesser extent, at age 12. No relevant interactions emerged for authoritative and authoritarian parenting. Sensitive children may be at heightened risk for internalizing problems when exposed to a permissive parenting style. Permissive parenting was associated with increased ruminative coping strategies in sensitive children which, in turn, predicted higher levels of depression. Hence, rumination emerged as an important cognitive risk factor for the development of depressive symptoms in sensitive children.

Background: Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a biologically based temperament trait associated with enhanced awareness and responsivity to environmental and social stimuli. Individuals with high SPS are more affected by their environments, which may result in overarousal, cognitive depletion, and fatigue. Method: We examined individual differences in resting-state (rs) brain connectivity (using functional MRI) as a function of SPS among a group of adults (M age = 66.13 ± 11.44 years) immediately after they completed a social affective “empathy” task. SPS was measured with the Highly Sensitive Person (HSP) Scale and correlated with rs brain connectivity. Results: Results showed enhanced rs brain connectivity within the ventral attention, dorsal attention, and limbic networks as a function of greater SPS. Region of interest analyses showed increased rs brain connectivity between the hippocampus and the precuneus (implicated in episodic memory); while weaker connectivity was shown between the amygdala and the periaqueductal gray (important for anxiety), and the hippocampus and insula (implicated in habitual cognitive processing). Conclusions: The present study showed that SPS is associated with rs brain connectivity implicated in attentional control, consolidation of memory, physiological homeostasis, and deliberative cognition. These results support theories proposing “depth of processing” as a central feature of SPS and highlight the neural processes underlying this cardinal feature of the trait.

People differ in their response to similar experiences with some being generally more and some less sensitive. Several theories have been developed over the years to describe such differences in sensitivity and a growing number of studies in humans and other species provide empirical evidence that some individuals are indeed more affected than others by environmental influences as a function of various sensitivity markers. These include temperament traits in children as well as a number of biological factors such as physiological reactivity and genes. In this paper, we present an integrated theoretical perspective on Environmental Sensitivity and provide new empirical evidence that sensitivity, measured with a short questionnaire for adults, predicts differences in the response to negative as well as positive experiences. Results across four individual studies (total N = 1,140) suggest that individual differences in sensitivity to the environment can be reliably and easily assessed with a short self-report measure (HSP-12), confirmed and validated by two empirical studies according to which the scale predicts heightened reactivity to both negative and positive experiences. Furthermore, our findings show that sensitivity reflects a continuous spectrum from low to high along which people fall into three distinct sensitivity groups (low, medium, and high), and that sensitivity is associated with a specific personality profile characterised by both high neuroticism and high openness to experiences. We conclude that empirical findings confirm the theoretical proposition that people differ in their sensitivity to environmental influences and propose a number of future directions to advance research on environmental sensitivity.

In this chapter, we discuss romantic relationship maintenance in the context of self-expansion. Overall, we review the self-expansion model and its accompanying empirical literature over the past 30 years, and consider some implications and future directions. Specifically, we begin by conceptualizing relationship maintenance, describing the self-expansion model (including both of its key principles: motivation to expand one's abilities to accomplish goals and including close others in the self), and covering some of the foundational work conducted with couples (e.g., self–other overlap and relational benefits of shared exciting activities). We then review research showing that relationship maintenance and self-expansion are positively related, and discuss potential mechanisms and theoretical underpinnings. We next explore more recent research on individual self-expansion and its implications for the maintenance of close relationships. Throughout the chapter, we provide illustrative examples of how self-expansion is associated with relationship characteristics, behaviors, maintenance, and outcomes. These examples will hopefully allow readers to better understand the concepts, theories, and empirical findings, and also allow utilization of this knowledge in real-life applications. Finally, we end with a summary and discussion of future directions for self-expansion and relationship researchers.

Past behavioral research has examined relationship infidelity as a potential outcome of focusing on attractive alternative partners when already in a relationship. The extent to which individuals find such alternatives attractive has been shown to be associated with various factors in the relationship, including self-expansion. However, no previous research has tested the role of self-expansion experimentally. This paper presents two experiments that directly manipulate self-expansion to determine the effect of self-expansion on responses to attractive alternative partners. Participants primed to experience a higher need for self-expansion had better memory for attractive alternatives with self-expanding traits dissimilar to their partner’s versus attractive alternatives with self-expanding traits similar to their partner’s. Additionally, participants primed with self-expansion (via a video of their partner discussing ways in which life with one another is exciting, novel, and challenging), had less fMRI BOLD response to attractive alternatives of the opposite sex in regions associated with perception of attractive faces (anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex) relative to when they were primed with love (via a video of their partner discussing times they felt strong feelings of love for one another), or neutral content (via a video of their partner discussing some times in which they engage in mundane, routine activities together). The magnitude of this effect in the ACC correlated with relationship closeness as measured by the inclusion of the other in the self scale.

ObjectiveTo explore the relationship between sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) and parental subjective experience (PSE).BackgroundSPS is a temperament trait characterized by greater sensitivity to environmental and social stimuli; no previous research has examined the relation of SPS to PSE (e.g., how much parents feel parenting is difficult or feel connected to their child).MethodIn the first of two online studies, mothers were unaware of the study's relation to SPS (N = 92). In the second, mothers (n = 802) and fathers (n = 65) were recruited through an SPS‐related website. SPS was assessed by the short version of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale; PSE by 27 items with three components—Parenting Difficulties, Good Coparenting Relationship, and Attunement to Child.ResultsControlling or not for external stressors, negative affectivity, children's age, and socioeconomic status, high‐SPS mothers in both studies scored meaningfully higher on Parenting Difficulties and Attunement to Child; high‐SPS fathers scored higher on Attunement to Child. SPS had little association with Coparenting Relationship.ConclusionParents high in SPS report more attunement with child, although mothers found parenting more difficult.ImplicationsThis information could aid family researchers, particularly by considering the role of adult temperament. It also suggests that interventions focused on high‐SPS parents could improve their parenting experience and hence perhaps enhance child development. Thus, this research and what may follow from it could advance both theory and practice.

According to several developmental theories some children are more sensitive to the quality of their environment than others, but most supporting empirical evidence is based on relatively distal markers of hypothesized sensitivity. This study provides evidence for the validity of behaviorally observed Environmental Sensitivity as a moderator of parenting effects on children's early development in a sample of 292 children (Mage = 3.74; SD = 0.26) and their mothers. Sensitivity was coded using a newly developed observational measure for the specific and objective assessment of Environmental Sensitivity, the Highly Sensitive Child-Rating System (HSC-RS). HSC-RS factorial structure, associations with temperament traits, and interactions with parenting quality in the prediction of socioemotional child outcomes are reported. Findings supported a 1-factor solution. Observed sensitivity was relatively distinct from observed temperament and interacted with both low and high parenting quality in the development of behavior problems and social competence at ages 3 and 6. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).