Illegal wildlife poisoning is a high-impact but cryptic wildlife crime, requiring proactive, evidence-based targeting of limited enforcement resources. We developed a patrol-oriented spatiotemporal risk framework for illegal poisoning across Greece using poisoning incidents recorded during 2014-2024. Incidents were aggregated to a 5-km grid and modelled as monthly counts using negative binomial models with covariates representing accessibility, conflict and motivation, governance context, and environmental conditions. To enhance operational relevance, we further modelled incident severity (affected animals per incident) and baiting complexity (distributed baiting) and produced severity-weighted expected impact surfaces. We analysed 915 incidents (1620 affected animals; 2295 poison baits) and found that predicted risk was spatially concentrated, with markedly higher baseline risk in Crete-Dodecanese region and additional high-priority areas across the mainland. Monthly risk increased with road density and livestock depredation losses, and decreased with Natura 2000 presence, while being higher closer to Natura boundaries. Risk exhibited clear seasonality with peaks in early spring and autumn. Models based on incidents investigated by specially trained dogs revealed substantially higher bait recovery and distributed baiting than reports not investigated by dog units. Severity and distributed-baiting models further distinguished frequency-based priority areas from impact-based priorities, and severity-weighted maps re-ranked some areas relative to incident probability alone. Our framework provides evidence-based layers for seasonal patrol planning, uncertainty-aware prioritization, and impact-oriented prevention.

Wind energy is widely considered to be an integral part in global efforts to mitigate climate change, but its rapid expansion is raising concerns regarding its impacts on biodiversity and specifically soaring birds which rely on the same high-wind landscapes targeted for turbine siting. Understanding how these developments alter space use, movement behaviour, and energy expenditure is critical for mitigating impacts on threatened populations. Here, we combined two decades of telemetry data to evaluate the responses of Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in a region undergoing substantial wind power plant development. Long-term analyses (2004-2022) revealed pronounced displacement, with population utilization reduced by 85-89% within 200 m of turbines. High-resolution GPS tracking (2016-2021) provided complementary behavioural insights, showing significant reductions in crossing rates, daily flight distances and time spent near turbines once they became operational. We also identified areas of increased vulture activity that overlap with planned wind farms under licensing, suggesting that such sites may represent critical corridors for population movement and should remain undeveloped. Our findings support considering cumulative displacement and potential energetic costs in environmental assessments alongside major existing threats, including poisoning and electrocution. We recommend spatial planning that avoids core movement areas to reconcile renewable energy expansion with the conservation of large soaring raptors.

Understanding range-wide genetic diversity, population structure and connectivity is fundamental for evaluating the evolutionary potential and conservation needs of a species. The Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) is a long-lived colonial waterbird, with a broad distribution from southeastern Europe to Central Asia. It experienced severe anthropogenic population declines during the 19th-20th centuries but has recently recovered following targeted conservation actions. Despite extensive ecological knowledge, its population genetics have remained unexplored. Here, we present the first comprehensive genetic assessment of the species across its range, using mitochondrial ND2 sequences and a set of microsatellite loci to quantify genetic diversity, characterize population structure, reconstruct demographic history and identify regions of conservation priority. Mitochondrial data revealed low haplotype and nucleotide diversity and a shallow genealogical history indicative of a recent post-glacial expansion from a bottlenecked maternal lineage. Bayesian skyline plot analysis suggested population growth beginning after the Last Glacial Maximum. Microsatellite diversity was uniformly low across colonies, with no private alleles, and differentiation among colonies was detectable, but weak. Bayesian clustering, FST and Dest support a continuous population structure consistent with isolation by distance, under migration-drift balance occurring from the interaction between historical bottlenecks, contemporary gene flow and recent recolonisation. Although overall gene flow appears sufficient to buffer further loss of genetic diversity, the low standing variation highlights the need for continued, coordinated conservation. Our results provide a baseline for future studies on the genetics of the species and support flyway-scale management that prioritises habitat connectivity and safeguards peripheral colonies.

Facultative paedomorphosis, the retention of larval traits in sexually mature individuals, plays a crucial role in species ecology and evolution and is influenced by complex interactions between environmental factors. Here, we compile all known cases of paedomorphosis in all newt species in Greece and report 20 new localities, mainly in Northern Pindos National Park. Our results indicate that paedomorphosis tends to occur more frequently in stable aquatic environments in combination with unfavourable external conditions (lack of precipitation and higher temperatures). Furthermore, species-specific patterns related to the occurrence of paedomorphosis were also unveiled: Mesotriton alpestris prefers high-elevation and permanent ponds; Lissotriton graecus occurs predominantly in artificial, lowland ponds; and Triturus macedonicus is associated with a stable hydroperiod and fish absence. Overall, conservation strategies should explicitly account for paedomorphic populations, emphasizing the value of artificial ponds, which are able to support this life-history strategy. Lastly, the Northern Pindos Mountain Range emerges as a major European intra-specific diversity hotspot.

Prioritizing renewable energy generation over the conservation of natural habitats and species on a large spatial scale, leads to the paradox of impacting biodiversity to mitigate climate change. In this study, we aim at quantifying the long-term demographic impact of the excess mortality caused by collisions with wind turbines on the populations of two vulture species of conservation concern. Using long-term monitoring data and Integrated Population Models (IPMs), we quantified demographic parameters and projected population trends under various wind power development scenarios. Our findings indicate that even under our most optimistic scenarios, annual collision mortality could reach up to 30 % of the current Cinereous vulture population and 7 % of the Griffon vulture population. Without further wind power expansion, both vulture populations are predicted to remain stable or increase over the next 20 years. However, the addition of 85 wind turbines is likely to drive the Cinereous vulture to local extinction within 18 years and significantly slow the growth of the Griffon vulture population. Scenarios involving larger numbers of turbines could result in the extinction of both species within two to five years for Cinereous vultures and up to 20 years for Griffon vultures, depending on space use intensity. Our results underscore the vulnerability of long-lived species to excess mortality and highlight the need for comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) that incorporate population dynamics analyses. Effective conservation strategies must include rigorous pre- and post-construction monitoring, the availability of monitoring data, and cumulative impact assessments that consider the entire foraging range of these species. Additionally, strategic planning to avoid critical vulture habitats and implementing mitigation measures in buffer zones are essential. This study emphasizes the necessity of integrating biodiversity considerations into renewable energy planning to balance the goals of energy production and wildlife conservation.

Timing and spatial distribution patterns of migratory birds are crucial for their conservation, particularly in Greece, which serves as a vital migratory corridor between Europe, Asia, and Africa. Traditional monitoring methods face challenges due to resource limitations and the country’s complex geography. This study aimed to determine the migration phenology and spatial distribution of 18 species of raptors and soaring birds in Greece using citizen science data from eBird, analyzed with generalized additive models (GAMs). We processed 15,940 checklists for spring migration and 9131 for autumn migration from 2010 to 2023. GAMs successfully modeled the migration phenology for most species, revealing variable peak migration dates in spring and more synchronized migration in autumn, with most species migrating in early September. A spatial analysis highlighted the importance of coastal areas and islands (particularly the Aegean islands and Crete) as key migratory routes and stopover sites. Validation with standardized counts from the Antikythira Bird Observatory showed some discrepancies, emphasizing the limitations of relying on a single monitoring site and the value of broad-scale citizen science data. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of integrating citizen science data with robust analytical techniques to fill knowledge gaps, providing valuable insights for designing monitoring programs and informing conservation strategies.

Mediterranean chestnut forests represent ecologically and economically important systems that support biodiversity while providing timber, non-timber forest products, and cultural services. However, traditional management practices are undergoing substantial shifts, with potential implications for forest structure and biodiversity. This study investigates how variation in forest structure and management intensity influences woodpecker communities in chestnut-dominated forests on Mount Paiko, northern Greece. Standardized surveys were conducted at 26 sites stratified by management intensity, and structural forest characteristics such as tree diameter, basal area, and deadwood volume were quantified. Species richness, abundance, and habitat use (feeding and nesting signs) were assessed in relation to these variables. Seven woodpecker species were detected, with distinct differences in species composition across management types. Feeding activity was positively associated with mean tree diameter, while basal area showed a significant negative correlation with woodpecker diversity. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed species-specific preferences along structural gradients, highlighting the association of the Black and Lesser Spotted woodpeckers with larger-diameter trees and deadwood-rich stands. Our results underscore the role of structural heterogeneity in supporting diverse woodpecker assemblages and highlight the need to integrate biodiversity conservation into chestnut forest management, particularly through selective retention of large trees and deadwood elements.

The genetic diversity and population structure of the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), a threatened migratory falcon, were assessed to inform conservation strategies under the LIFE project for the species' reinforcement in Bulgaria, by means of neutral microsatellite markers and non-neutral candidate gene markers associated with migratory behavior. The Core European populations (Spain, Italy, Greece) exhibit high genetic diversity and low differentiation, making them suitable sources for conservation translocations. In contrast, peripheral populations (e.g., Mongolia, Limnos Island) are genetically distinct and less suited for reinforcement due to potential risks of outbreeding depression. Non-neutral markers showed minimal genetic differentiation among populations, suggesting a lack of disruptive adaptive divergence within the species' range. These findings emphasize the importance of genetic similarity and diversity in translocation strategies and highlight the potential for maintaining adaptive potential while avoiding maladaptive outcomes. This integrated approach offers a framework for enhancing the genetic resilience and long-term stability of Lesser Kestrel populations in Bulgaria.

Accurately predicting species' responses to anthropogenic climate change is hampered by limited knowledge of their spatiotemporal ecological and evolutionary dynamics. We combine landscape genomics, demographic reconstructions, and species distribution models to assess the eco-evolutionary responses to past climate fluctuations and to future climate of an Afro-Palaearctic migratory raptor, the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni). We uncover two evolutionarily and ecologically distinct lineages (European and Asian), whose demographic history, evolutionary divergence, and historical distribution range were profoundly shaped by past climatic fluctuations. Using future climate projections, we find that the Asian lineage is at higher risk of range contraction, increased migration distance, climate maladaptation, and consequently greater extinction risk than the European lineage. Our results emphasise the importance of providing historical context as a baseline for understanding species' responses to contemporary climate change, and illustrate how incorporating intraspecific genetic variation improves the ecological realism of climate change vulnerability assessments.

Despite an overall recovery of European large raptor populations, the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) population in Greece is Endangered. Poisoning from baits set illegally for carnivore control is known as an important mortality factor, impacting a wider avian scavenger assemblage in our study area. We analysed golden eagle mortality data from northern Greece for the last 35 years, including the fates of 29 satellite-tagged individuals from the last decade. Poisoning accounted for 65 % of the overall mortality, the highest percentage recorded globally for any eagle population. Known fate survival models from telemetry data revealed 0.78 and 0.85 annual survival rates for immature and adults, respectively (the lowest reported in telemetry studies), improving markedly when censored for poisoning mortality. Poisoning occurred disproportionally close to protected areas, more often in areas with high carnivore livestock depredation and almost exclusively in winter when eagles were more likely to scavenge. Golden eagles were usually poisoned by directly feeding on carcasses and offal baits laced predominantly with illegal toxic substances (e.g. carbofuran and methomyl). Electrocution was the second cause of mortality, and collision with turbines was also recorded. The main conservation implication of our findings is that urgent policy changes are required to reverse the population's decline, mainly against the illegal use of poisoned baits and across prevention, legislative and enforcement levels. We propose specific measures towards this direction, such as improving livestock husbandry, further capacity building for wildlife crime investigation and reforms in relevant legislation.

The genetic structure and dispersal dynamics of reptile populations are profoundly influenced by natural processes and human activities. While natural dispersal is shaped by species’ characteristics and paleogeographical features, human-mediated translocations have become increasingly prevalent, posing ecological challenges. Mitochondrial genetic markers have been pivotal in untangling invasion pathways for various species. Our study focuses on the Dalmatian Algyroides, Algyroides nigropunctatus (Duméril & Bibron, 1839), a lizard species endemic to the Balkan Peninsula, where recent observations in the Apulian region of Italy suggest an introduced population. Genetic analyses employing two mtDNA markers (16S and ND4 genes) elucidate the phylogenetic relationships of the Dalmatian Algyroides and trace the geographic origin of the introduced population. Our findings reveal areas in western Greece and southwestern Albania as the most probable areas of the source population, while we identify two previously undetected geographical lineages in the native range, highlighting the complex evolutionary history of the species in the region. Additionally, indications of potential glacial refugia and post-glacial dispersal patterns shed more light on the species’ demographic dynamics.

Climate change is rapidly challenging natural systems, ranking among the top drivers of biodiversity and ecosystem changes globally. Long-distance migratory bird species are particularly vulnerable to climate-induced changes and have already exhibited shifts in their distribution and phenology. In this study, we investigated the impact of climate change on the arrival fuel loads and stopover behavior of 16 trans-Saharan migratory passerines during spring migration aiming to highlight not only the direct effects on migration patterns but also the potential implications for later stages of their annual cycle. We showed that the double barrier crossing, i.e. the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean Sea, imposes varying energy costs depending on geographic differences in the availability of stopover sites in northern Africa. The projected decline in the availability of these refueling sites is likely to pose a greater threat to migratory passerines than the changes in desert crossing distances. Moreover, arrival fuel load, migration timing, and, to a lesser extent, aridity, were found to influence stopover behavior. However, with deteriorating conditions across the Mediterranean, aridity is expected to play a more significant role in stopover behavior in the future. The predicted delays in the timing of migration and the reduction of arrival fuel loads could ultimately compromise the breeding success of these birds or even increase mortality en route. The study emphasizes the vulnerability of migratory birds to climate change and provides valuable insights for conservation planning, highlighting the need to protect critical refueling areas.

Migratory birds undertake long journeys across continents to reach breeding habitats with abundant resources. These migrations are essential for their survival and are shaped by a complex interplay of physiological adaptations, behavioral cues, and gene expression patterns. Central to migration are stopovers, critical resting points where birds replenish energy stores before continuing their journey. In this study, we integrate physiological measurements, behavioral observations, and molecular data from temporarily caged migrating Garden Warblers (Sylvia borin) to gain insights into their stopover strategies and physiological adaptations after crossing the extended ecological barrier formed by the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean Sea. Depleted individuals, marked by low body mass and flight muscle mass, showcased remarkable plasticity in recovering and rapidly rebuilding energy stores within a short 5-day stopover. Flight muscle mass increased during this period, highlighting a dynamic trade-off between muscle rebuilding and refuelling. Notably, birds prioritizing muscle rebuilding exhibited a trade-off with the downregulation of genes related to lipid transport and metabolism and at the same time showing evidence of skeletal muscle angiogenesis. Early arrivals were more motivated to depart and exhibited higher levels of physiological stress. Our study highlights the importance of understanding the adaptive responses of birds to changing environmental conditions along their migration routes.

Migration is an integral part of the annual cycle of many bird species that have evolved to take advantage of spatially segregated, seasonally abundant food resources while avoiding harsh winter conditions. Increasing evidence suggests that long-distance migrants are shortening their migration routes and wintering at higher latitudes closer to their breeding grounds. One potential example of this process are the observations of Egyptian vultures during the winter on the island of Crete. In this study we provide an overview of wintering Egyptian vulture occurrences on the island of Crete, seeking to shed additional light on the species' wintering ecology. To this aim we collated extensive field observations spanning 28 winters from 1995 to 2023 and analysed telemetry data from three tracked vultures. Our results revealed a change in the wintering frequency of Egyptian vultures in the island with an increasing trend since 2015, especially regarding the presence of subadult and adult birds. We found an increased habitat use intensity for open landscapes and agricultural areas compared to other habitat types within Crete, emphasizing the influence of food availability on space utilization. We suggest that the interplay between climate changes, lack of experienced conspecifics and local food availability could have triggered the increasing number of wintering Egyptian vultures in Crete. The implications of this short-stopping behaviour extend to conservation strategies, highlighting the need for the consideration of new wintering sites and the potential threats faced by vultures during this period. We recommend the operation of supplementary feeding stations and actions to reduce the risk of electrocution to be considered as valuable conservation actions in the species' wintering sites in Crete. Monitoring and further research are recommended to assess the long-term impact and viability of this new migration tactic, providing insights into adaptive responses to environmental change.

Natal dispersal is a crucial period for raptors with serious implications for individuals’ survival and population demography. In this study we analyzed data from 18 GPS-tracked golden eagles in order to describe their dispersal ecology in northern Greece, where the species feeds mostly on tortoises. Young eagles in our population dispersed at 176 days post fledging, spent their first year of independence relatively close (40–60 kms) to their natal ranges and exhibited a variable temporary settlement behavior. Overall dispersal range sizes did not differ seasonally, but temporary settlement area range sizes were significantly larger in winter. Three eagles survived to territorial settlement and occupied ranges 20–60 kms from their natal areas. The application and refinement of the Scottish GET dispersal ranging model suggested that eagles used areas that had higher topographical relief and lower canopy cover during their natal dispersal. Habitat heterogeneity seems to also be influential during temporary settlement. Our study is the first to provide both such insights for golden eagles in southern eastern Europe and a method for delineating temporary settlement areas for the species. Our findings can be explained in terms of food and habitat availability. We highlight the importance of conserving heterogeneous open areas of complex topography and applying proactive management measures within temporary settlement areas for our population’s conservation.

The analysis of bird ringing data often comes with some potential sources of error and bias, as ring wear and/or loss could affect mark-recapture analyses and produce erroneous estimates of survival. Furthermore, ring wear and loss rates may differ between and within species based on the habitat they use or the species' life-history traits and behaviour as well as the type of the ring. In this study we use resighting data from a long-term double marking experiment to directly estimate the rate of colour-ring loss among different Dalmatian Pelican colonies over time, evaluate any possible factors that could contribute to differential ring loss and assess how it may bias the results of mark-resighting analyses. Based on 14,849 resightings from 1275 individuals and using multi-state continuous-time hidden Markov models (HMMs) we showed that probability of ring loss was markedly different among colonies, ranging from 0.10 to 0.42 within the first year of marking, whereas the cumulative probability of losing a ring after ten years ranged 0.64 to 0.99. These rates are among the highest estimated when compared to previous studies in waterbirds. Our approach assessing the intra-specific variance in ring loss provided several factors potentially involved, such as the use of glue and the fledgling age accuracy and we could further hypothesise the effect of environmental factors. Finally, our results showed that ring loss can be a significant challenge for the assessment of the species' population dynamics using mark-recapture methods as survival was consistently underestimated when not accounting for ring loss and varied significantly among different colonies.

Migrating birds are often exposed to variable environments and face a multitude of stress exposures along their long-distance flights. During stopover refueling, migratory birds must balance the need to accumulate energy reserves to continue their migration with the need to respond to environmental and physiological stressors. We examined the gene expression patterns of different Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) in migrating birds during stopover at different body condition states (lean vs. fat), to provide some first insights on the role of HSPs in bird migration and explore the concept of a trade-off between refueling and stress response. Our results showed upregulation of HSP expression at release that could be associated with muscle growth and increased cholesterol and lipid synthesis needed for birds to fuel their upcoming migration. On the other hand, during capture, upregulation of HSP5 could be attributed to physiological recovery from the non-stop endurance flight when crossing the Sahara Desert-Mediterranean Sea ecological barrier. All birds significantly increased their fuel loads up to 48% of lean body mass and we provide evidence for muscle rebuilding during stopover as flight muscle mass increased by 10%, highlighting the fact that stopover sites can play a major role in the physiological recovery of migrants.

Unsustainable fossil fuel emissions have prompted a global shift towards renewable energy sources, such as wind. This has led to a strong expansion of wind power generation infrastructures, often conflicting with biodiversity conservation. Relatively large flying animals, such as birds and bats, have frequently been reported to collide with wind turbines, resulting in casualties that can depress population size and lead to local extinctions. Migratory species that move across continents through their year-round displacements may be especially at risk. We comprehensively assessed wind turbine exposure for a colonial migratory raptor of European conservation interest, the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni , based on the distribution and size of >1800 colonies and a large GPStracking dataset ( >350 individuals) for three distinct biogeographical populations (from Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas). 26 % of the European population has at least one wind turbine within the foraging areas around colony sites, Italian colonies being most at risk. The main European network of protected areas, the Natura 2000 network, failed to mitigate the potential negative impact of wind turbines on breeding populations. GPS-tracking revealed that exposure was negligible in the African non -breeding areas (Sahel region), particularly high during migration, and lower during breeding for Iberian and Balkan individuals but not for Italian ones. Different countries should prioritize different measures to mitigate collision risk with wind power generation infrastructures. This case study can be leveraged by conservationists and renewable energy stakeholders to mitigate conflicts between biodiversity conservation and expected wind energy infrastructure development in the near future.

Eleonora's falcon (Falco eleonorae Géné, 1839) is a well-known long-distance migrant of the Afro-Palaearctic flyway, a summer breeder of the Mediterranean region and North-west Africa and a winter resident of Madagascar and surrounding areas, thus characterized as a double endemic. Within the context of a long-term monitoring and conservation programme on Antikythira Island, Greece, which accommodates one of the largest concentrations of breeding pairs of Eleonora's falcons globally, birds were subjected to regular inspections for the presence of ticks from 2017 to 2023. In total, 104 adults and 149 nymphs (all belonging to Haemaphysalis genus) were collected. All ticks, apart from 2 nymphs, exhibited broadly salient palpi and did not possess the pronounced palpal segment 2 spurs or spur-like angles that are characteristic of adults, nymphs and most larvae of Rhipistoma, thus placed them in the Ornithophysalis subgenus. Following comprehensive morphological assessment and genetic analysis of the mitochondrial genome by means of next-generation sequencing of both adult and nymphal stages of the ticks, our empirical findings substantiate the delineation of a previously unclassified species. This taxonomic assignment situates the newly described species within the Ornithophysalis subgenus and the Haemaphysalis doenitzi group, marking its presence for the first time within the Western Palaearctic region.

Body size variation is central in the evolution of life-history traits in amphibians, but the underlying genetic architecture of this complex trait is still largely unknown. Herein, we studied the genetic basis of body size and fecundity of the alternative morphotypes in a wild population of the Greek smooth newt (Lissotriton graecus). By combining a genome-wide association approach with linkage disequilibrium network analysis, we were able to identify clusters of highly correlated loci thus maximizing sequence data for downstream analysis. The putatively associated variants explained 12.8% to 44.5% of the total phenotypic variation in body size and were mapped to genes with functional roles in the regulation of gene expression and cell cycle processes. Our study is the first to provide insights into the genetic basis of complex traits in newts and provides a useful tool to identify loci potentially involved in fitness-related traits in small data sets from natural populations in non-model species.