Spinal cord injury remains difficult to treat because of the intrinsically limited regenerative capacity of neurons. Although neural progenitor cell (NPC) therapies are promising, inadequate graft survival, uncontrolled differentiation and weak functional integration continue to restrict outcomes. Here we report biohybrid microrobots called NPCbots, fabricated by integrating human-induced pluripotent-stem-cell-derived NPCs with magnetoelectric nanoparticles, enabling wireless magnetic navigation and non-invasive neuronal stimulation. A lab-on-a-chip platform allows scalable fabrication and maintains cell viability and differentiation capacity. In a zebrafish spinal cord injury model, alternating magnetic field stimulation of NPCbots induced rapid in vivo neuronal and astrocytic differentiation, enhanced graft integration at the lesion site, and near-complete recovery of swimming and exploratory behaviours within 3 days. In a non-regenerating murine model of complete spinal cord transection, NPCbots were well tolerated for at least 28 days, localized effectively to the injury site, promoted neural differentiation and resulted in substantial improvements in motor function within 4 weeks. These results demonstrate that magnetically guided NPCbots combined with non-invasive magnetoelectric stimulation promote neural repair and functional recovery in preclinical spinal cord injury models.

Electromagnetic navigation systems (eMNS) are increasingly used in minimally invasive procedures such as endovascular interventions and targeted drug delivery due to their ability to generate fast and precise magnetic fields. In this paper, we utilize the OctoMag and a custom 13-coil eMNS to achieve remote levitation and control of multiple rigid bodies across large air gaps, showcasing the dynamic capabilities of such systems. A compact parametric analytical model maps coil currents to the forces and torques acting on the levitating object, eliminating the need for computationally expensive simulations or lookup tables and establishing a levitator- and platform-agnostic control framework. Translational motion is stabilized using linear quadratic regulators. A nonlinear time-invariant controller is used to regulate the reduced attitude accounting for the inherent uncontrollability of rotations about the dipole axis and stabilizing the full five degrees of freedom controllable pose subspace. We analyze key design limitations and evaluate the approach through trajectory tracking experiments across different objects and actuation platforms. Notably, our proposed controller demonstrates superiority over an equivalent baseline PID formulation, reliably tracking large spatial angles up to 65 degrees. This work demonstrates the dynamic capabilities and potential of feedback control in electromagnetic navigation, which is likely to open up new medical applications.

Electromagnetic Navigation Systems can be used to remotely guide medical devices such as magnetic catheters or guidewires, holding potential in a variety of minimally invasive surgical applications. This paper introduces a method to simultaneously actuate and localize a tethered magnetic device with embedded sensor pickup coils using a single system. Six-degree-of- freedom localization is achieved by driving the electromagnets of the Electromagnetic Navigation System with mutually orthogonal pulse-width-modulated voltages of different frequencies. The method is demonstrated using a human-scale system composed of three electromagnets to actuate and localize a magnetic catheter prototype with pickup coils embedded at its tip. In this case, the pose is estimated at a rate of 77 Hz, with a typical mean accuracy below 2 mm in position and 2 degrees in orientation.

ABSTRACT Microrobots, typically with dimensions between a millimeter and a few microns, have emerged as a transformative class of intelligent machines at the convergence of robotics, materials science, and biomedicine. Inspired by the motility and adaptability of microorganisms, these systems are designed to operate in low‐Reynolds‐number environments, where viscous forces dominate and conventional macroscopic actuation principles no longer apply. This perspective outlines the fundamental physical constraints governing microscale locomotion, reviews state‐of‐the‐art propulsion strategies, including magnetic, acoustic, chemical, optical, and biohybrid actuation, and discusses recent progress in micro/nanofabrication, functional materials, and embodied intelligence. Key biomedical applications, such as targeted drug delivery, minimally invasive diagnosis, microsurgery, and swarm‐assisted therapy, are examined with respect to their clinical promise and translational challenges. Finally, critical issues related to energy supply, control and imaging, manufacturing scalability, regulatory pathways, and ethical considerations are analyzed, and future directions toward autonomous, intelligent, and clinically deployable microrobotic systems are proposed. The continued integration of advanced materials, high‐resolution imaging, and AI‐driven control is expected to accelerate the transition of microrobots from laboratory prototypes to practical tools for next‐generation precision medicine.

Magnetoelectric materials, which generate electric fields in response to alternating magnetic stimulation, are increasingly recognized for their applications in neuromodulation, tissue engineering, wireless drug delivery, and cancer treatment. This study addresses the cytotoxicity concerns associated with heavy metals in traditional magnetoelectric composites by introducing a heat-mediated magnetoelectric approach utilizing biocompatible iron oxide nanoparticles and pyroelectric polymers, thereby enhancing biomedical safety. The nanoparticles were synthesized with controlled size and shape via thermal decomposition of iron oleate, employing an in situ temperature labeling technique that simplifies the synthesis process and ensures uniform particle formation. These nanoparticles, optimized for high heating efficiency, were combined with the pyroelectric polymer P(VDF-TrFE) to create composite films that exhibit a heat-mediated magnetoelectric effect. This effect involves an alternating magnetic field heating the nanoparticles, leading to reversible material depolarization and the generation of a pyroelectric current. We explored the magnetopyroelectric effect on cell differentiation, demonstrating excellent biocompatibility with neural progenitor cells and significant enhancement in neuronal differentiation, attributed to the synergistic effects of heat and electricity. The pro-differentiation mechanism of magnetopyroelectric stimulation involves phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase AKT pathway and calcium signaling. This heat-mediated magnetoelectric approach not only presents a potential for applications such as neuronal repair and targeted drug delivery but also provides a safer and more versatile alternative to conventional magnetoelectric materials.

Precise drug delivery within anatomically complex tissues demands systems capable of both active navigation and deep tissue access, properties that have remained difficult to reconcile in existing nanocarriers and microrobots. Here we introduce Dynabots, a dynamic microrobotic assembly constructed from multifunctional nanoparticles covalently linked by thermally cleavable molecular connectors. This nanoparticle-rich architecture enables the integration of magnetic, imaging, and therapeutic components while preserving a high content of functional material. Collective assembly imparts enhanced magnetic responsiveness and maneuverability, enabling controlled navigation through tortuous biological environments. Upon exposure to mild thermal stimuli, the assemblies undergo programmed disassembly, releasing individual nanoparticles that can diffuse through tissue for localized therapeutic action. We establish the programmable transitions, biocompatibility, and therapeutic efficacy of this process across in vitro and in vivo models, including real-time fluoroscopic guidance within anatomically realistic phantoms and live rodent and porcine systems. By integrating magnetic control, reconfigurable architecture, and stimulus-triggered disassembly, Dynabots unite navigational precision with tissue permeability, providing a versatile platform for adaptive and deep-tissue drug delivery.

Medical robotics holds transformative potential for healthcare. Robots excel in tasks requiring precision, including surgery and minimally invasive interventions, and they can enhance diagnostics through improved automated imaging techniques. Despite the application potentials, the adoption of robotics still faces obstacles, such as high costs, technological limitations, regulatory issues, and concerns about patient safety and data security. This roadmap, authored by an international team of experts, critically assesses the state of medical robotics, highlighting existing challenges and emphasizing the need for novel research contributions to improve patient care and clinical outcomes. It explores advancements in machine learning, highlighting the importance of trustworthiness and interpretability in robotics, the development of soft robotics for surgical and rehabilitation applications, and the role of image-guided robotic systems in diagnostics and therapy. Mini, micro, and nano robotics for surgical interventions, as well as rehabilitation and assistive robots, are also discussed. Furthermore, the roadmap addresses service robots in healthcare, covering navigation, logistics, and telemedicine. For each of the topics addressed, current challenges and future directions to improve patient care through medical robotics are suggested.

Telesurgery has the potential to overcome geographical barriers in surgical care, encouraging its deployment in areas with sparse surgical expertise. Despite successful in-human experiments and substantial technological progress, the adoption of telesurgery remains slow. In this Review, we analyze the reasons for this slow adoption. First, we identify various contexts for telesurgery and highlight the vastly different requirements for their realization. We then discuss why procedures with high urgency and skill sparsity are particularly suitable for telesurgery. Last, we summarize key research areas essential for further progress. The goal of this Review is to provide the reader with a comprehensive analysis of the current state of telesurgery research and to provide guidance for faster adoption of this exciting technology.

Electric fields are increasingly recognized for their role as 'smart reagents' that can trigger or accelerate chemical reactions. Expanding upon this concept, our research introduces an innovative method that exploits electric fields induced by ultrasound on piezoelectric nanoparticles to facilitate the azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition in nonaqueous environments. The intense electric field generated around the BaTiO3 nanoparticles, as supported by density functional theory calculations, provides the suitable conditions necessary to trigger the cycloaddition of the alkyne-functionalized nanoparticles and the azide present in the solution. To quantitatively assess the occurrence of the click cycloaddition reaction at the nanoparticle surface interface, we tacked the azide with either an electroactive ferrocene moiety or with gold nanoparticles, which act as surface Raman enhancers. These experiments not only provide experimental validation of our approach, but also highlights the potential of piezoelectrostatic catalysts in enhancing the scalability of electrostatic catalysis.

Local precise drug delivery is conducive to improving therapeutic efficacy and minimizing off-target toxicity. Current local delivery approaches are focused mostly on superficial or postoperative tumor lesions, due to the challenges posed by the inaccessibility of deep-seated tumors. Herein, we report a magnetic continuum soft robot capable of non-invasive and site-specific delivery of prodrug nanoassemblies-loaded hydrogel. The nanoassemblies are co-assembled from redox-responsive docetaxel prodrug and oxaliplatin prodrug, and subsequently embedded into a hydrogel matrix. The hydrogel precursor and crosslinker are synchronously delivered using the soft robot under magnetic guidance and in situ crosslinked at the gastric cancer lesions, forming a drug depot for sustained release and long-lasting treatment. As the hydrogel gradually degrades, the nanoassemblies are internalized by tumor cells. The redox response ability enables them to be selectively activated within tumor cells to trigger the release of docetaxel and oxaliplatin, exerting a synergistic anti-tumor effect. We find that the combination effectively induces immunogenic cell death of gastric tumor, enhancing antitumor immune responses. This strategy offers an intelligent and controllable integration platform for precise drug delivery and combined chemo-immunotherapy.

Variable stiffness (VS) has revolutionized miniature surgical instruments, including cardiovascular catheters for minimally invasive surgeries (MISs), enabling advanced capabilities in stiffness modulation and multi-curvature bending. However, existing VS catheters with phase-changing materials are slow in softening and stiffening rates (≈90 s), which can lead to substantial increase in surgery duration. To address the slow stiffness change, we propose a VS catheter based on fiber jamming (FJ) that achieves instant stiffness changes (≤300 ms), enabling seamless catheter operations without delays. Moreover, our catheter, incorporating hundreds of ultrathin fibers into a slender 2.3-mm catheter body, achieves up to 6.5-fold stiffness changes. With adequate stiffness change, our two-segment catheter achieves complex bending profiles within seconds. In addition, the FJ-based design does not require electric currents or heating inside the human body, minimizing patient risks. This FJ-based VS catheter, with instantaneous response, adequate stiffness change, and enhanced safety, can potentially establish benchmarks in MIS, allowing medical practitioners to effectively address formidable diseases.

Local administration of thrombolytics in ischemic stroke could accelerate clot lysis and the ensuing reperfusion while minimizing the side effects of systemic administration. Medical microrobots could be injected into the bloodstream and magnetically navigated to the clot for administering the drugs directly to the target. The magnetic manipulation that is required to navigate medical microrobots depends on various parameters such as the microrobots size, the blood velocity, and the imposed magnetic field gradients. Numerical simulation was used to study the motion of magnetically controlled microrobots flowing through representative cerebral bifurcations, for predicting the magnetic gradients required to navigate the microrobots from the injection point until the target location. Upon thorough validation of the model against several independent analytical and experimental results, the model was used to generate maps and predictive equations providing quantitative information on the required magnetic gradients, for different scenarios. The developed maps and predictive equations are crucial to inform the design, operation, and optimization of magnetic navigation systems for healthcare applications.

Laboratory automation is successfully implemented across a wide range of applications, from space exploration to oceanic research, facilitating data collection and analysis while improving precision in biological and medical fields. The future of robotic laboratory automation is closely tied to advancements in miniaturization. Thus, automation of lab-on-a-chip (LoC) systems-integrating complex laboratory tasks onto a small chip-holds great potential for scientific research, including the study of model organisms and cells. Here, an automated continuous-flow-based LoC device designed to investigate and manipulate the growth of pollen tubes (PTs)-fastest-growing cells in nature-within controlled chemical environments is presented. The automated LoC approach allows for the generation of tailored chemical gradients (e.g., of Ca2+) around the PT tip, offering unprecedented precision and efficiency in the manipulation of PT growth when compared to manual experiments. Besides advancing the experimental methodology by providing more precise information on the response of PTs to Ca2+ concentration gradients, the developed closed-loop approach with simultaneous data recording and processing reduces the time and costs associated with experiments. This underscores the great potential of robotic laboratory automation for streamlining data collection and analysis, paving the way for more efficient and precise scientific research.

Since their discovery in 2004, there has been remarkable progress in research on nanomotors, from the elucidation of different propulsion mechanisms to the study of their collective behaviour, culminating in investigations into their applications in biomedicine and environmental remediation. This Perspective reviews this evolution in nanomotor research and discusses the key challenges ahead, including the need for developing advanced characterization techniques, precise motion control, materials innovation, theory and modelling, and translationally feasible in vivo biomedical applications. These challenges highlight the current limitations of synthetic nanomotors and point to exciting future opportunities to revolutionize theranostics and create 'living' hybrid systems. We introduce the concept of 'systems materials' to encompass interacting functional materials across length scales from molecular to macro. Thus, this Perspective aims to inspire future generations of researchers to advance both fundamental understanding and practical breakthroughs, thereby engineering a paradigm shift in nanomotor research.

The last decade has witnessed rapid progress in the development of soft microrobots for biomedical applications, largely powered by the incorporation of new materials in their design to address various challenges. Herein, a unique magnetic nanoparticle‐hydrogel composite designed for microrobot applications is introduced. This composite comprises iron platinum‐zinc ferrite nanoparticles whose magnetic properties are enhanced by magnetic exchange‐coupling behavior. The introduction of zinc ferrite further allows for grafting alkyne‐bearing ligands on the nanoparticles, enabling them to be covalently immobilized within the hydrogel framework via azide‐alkyne cycloaddition, thereby improving the composite's stability. Using a template‐assisted 3D fabrication technique, the feasibility of using this composite for soft microrobots is demonstrated. Hence, one can assume this straightforward procedure to be easily adapted to other material systems, facilitating the creation of more customized soft microrobots.

Magnetization programming is a promising approach in the field of robotic magnetic navigation in which magnetized devices are manipulated using externally generated magnetic fields. This work explores the design and optimization of remagnetization actuators to dynamically reprogram the magnetization of the devices to be manipulated. The influence of the material and geometry of the magnet to be programmed and of the remagnetization circuit parameters on the performance of the programming is investigated. Performance assessment focuses on maximizing the achievable torque on the magnet and optimizing the dynamics and efficiency of the remagnetization. The key findings of this study are that AlNiCo 9 magnets can deliver superior torque compared to AlNiCo 5, and that using hollow instead of solid cylindrical magnets can improve the remagnetization process with only a limited reduction in its maximum achievable torque. These findings provide an important foundation for advancing the performance and reliability of remagnetization actuators in magnetic control systems.

Local administration of thrombolytics in ischemic stroke could accelerate clot lysis and the ensuing reperfusion while minimizing the side effects of systemic administration. Medical microrobots could be injected into the bloodstream and magnetically navigated to the clot for administering the drugs directly to the target. The magnetic manipulation required to navigate medical microrobots will depend on various parameters such as the microrobots size, the blood velocity, and the imposed magnetic field gradients. Numerical simulation was used to study the motion of magnetically controlled microrobots flowing through representative cerebral bifurcations, for predicting the magnetic gradients required to navigate the microrobots from the injection point until the target location. Upon thorough validation of the model against several independent analytical and experimental results, the model was used to generate maps and a predictive equation providing quantitative information on the required magnetic gradients, for different scenarios. The developed maps and predictive equation are crucial to inform the design, operation and optimization of magnetic navigation systems for healthcare applications.

Magnetic navigation offers wireless control over magnetic objects, which has important medical applications, such as targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgery. Magnetic navigation systems are categorized into systems using permanent magnets and systems based on electromagnets. Electromagnetic Navigation Systems (eMNSs) are believed to have a superior actuation bandwidth, facilitating trajectory tracking and disturbance rejection. This greatly expands the range of potential medical applications and includes even dynamic environments as encountered in cardiovascular interventions. To showcase the dynamic capabilities of eMNSs, we successfully stabilize a (non-magnetic) inverted pendulum on the tip of a magnetically driven arm. Our approach employs a model-based framework that leverages Lagrangian mechanics to capture the interaction between the mechanical dynamics and the magnetic field. Using system identification, we estimate unknown parameters, the actuation bandwidth, and characterize the system's nonlinearity. To explore the limits of electromagnetic navigation and evaluate its scalability, we characterize the electrical system dynamics and perform reference measurements on a clinical-scale eMNS, affirming that the proposed dynamic control methodologies effectively translate to larger coil configurations. A state-feedback controller stabilizes the inherently unstable pendulum, and an iterative learning control scheme enables accurate tracking of non-equilibrium trajectories. Furthermore, to understand structural limitations of our control strategy, we analyze the influence of magnetic field gradients on the motion of the system. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration to stabilize a 3D inverted pendulum through electromagnetic navigation.