Although men consistently endorse rape myths at higher rates than women, valid gender comparisons require evidence that instruments function equivalently across groups. This study evaluates the psychometric properties and gender-based measurement invariance of the “She Asked For It” subscale from the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale - Subtle (IRMA-S) in a Spanish community sample ( N = 1,003; 50.7% men). Analyses included Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory-based approaches, specifically Differential Item Functioning (DIF) and Differential Response Functioning (DRF). At the subscale level, analyses supported metric invariance and satisfactory internal consistency. However, five of six items exhibited significant DIF, predominantly uniform in nature. DRF analyses indicated that the cumulative impact of item-level DIF on expected total scores was modest, particularly for respondents with moderate levels of rape myth acceptance. These findings highlight the value of multi-method approaches to measurement invariance and underscore the need for cautious interpretation of raw gender differences in rape myth acceptance.

Although violence against women is broadly condemned, this rejection tends to diminish in prostitution-related contexts, where monetary exchange may be perceived as legitimising behaviours otherwise deemed unacceptable. This study examines responsibility attributions towards victims and perpetrators in male-perpetrated violence scenarios and analyses the influence of situational and individual-level factors on these attributions. A factorial survey design was implemented with 1,598 participants residing in Spain, who assessed vignettes varying by victim’s gender identity, nationality, presence of payment, type of violence, and reporting. Additionally, individual-level variables were measured, such as rape myth acceptance, comfort with sexuality, pornography consumption, and engagement in the purchase of sexual services. While overall levels of victim-blaming were low, attitudinal factors—particularly rape myth acceptance, ambivalent sexism, and views on prostitution—emerged as significant predictors of responsibility attributions. These findings underscore the role of individual belief systems in shaping responses to violence and offer insights for addressing harmful stereotypes, especially in contexts involving prostitution.

In recent decades, prostitution has emerged a highly debated issue among policymakers and the general public. Given the limited research in this field, this study investigates public attitudes toward the regulation of women's prostitution through latent class analysis. It also examines the factors that correlate with these attitudes, focusing on psychosocial factors (rape myth acceptance, sexist attitudes, and comfort with sexuality) and individual characteristics (gender, age, and religiosity), as well as behaviors related to pornography consumption and the purchase of sexual services. The sample consisted of 363 Italian participants (53.9% women, M = 24.8 years). The findings reveal ambivalence in public attitudes toward the regulation of women's prostitution, reflecting the lack of clear legislative frameworks on the issue. Rape myth acceptance and comfort with sexuality were positively associated with greater support for the legalization of prostitution. In contrast, women and religiously active individuals were more likely to favor a moderate abolitionist stance compared to men and non-religious respondents. Benevolent sexism was positively correlated with support for the criminalization of prostitution, while hostile sexism did not show a significant association with any of the regulatory models considered. The results are discussed in relation to the concept of the "politics of morality", highlighting how public attitudes toward prostitution intersect with broader moral and ideological perspectives.

Sexual Objectification Theory posits that exposure to objectifying content, such as pornography, the purchase of sexual services, and adherence to traditional masculinity, can contribute to the acceptance of harmful beliefs about sexual violence. This study examined the relationship between rape myth acceptance and a range of attitudinal and personal factors using a sample of 1,603 internet users in Spain (51.6% women, M = 45.7 years old). The outcome variable was rape myth acceptance (alpha = .79), and the correlates included various forms of pornography consumption, purchasing sexual services, ambivalent sexism, comfort with sexuality, gender identification, and sociodemographic characteristics. The results indicate that rape myth acceptance was generally low (M = 2.03, range 1-5) and was associated with some sociodemographic characteristics, pornography consumption, ambivalent sexism, and comfort with sexuality. Ambivalent sexism, comfort with sexuality, and gender were the strongest predictors of rape myth acceptance, while pornography consumption had a limited impact on endorsing such beliefs. These findings provide insights into the factors influencing rape myth acceptance and offer guidance for developing policies to combat rape culture.

Understanding the dynamics of sexually violent behavior is essential for developing effective interventions and policies that promote safe and respectful sexual relationships. An important area of research in this context is examining the influence of pornography on sexual behavior, which can inform these efforts. This study explores how sexually permissive attitudes and acceptance of the sexual double standard mediate the relationship between pornography consumption and engagement in violent sexual practices among a sample of the general population in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain (N = 1003; 50.7% men). The sexual double standard refers to the societal belief that men and women should be judged differently for the same sexual behaviors, with men often praised or excused for promiscuity, while women face stigma and shame. The findings reveal gender differences in engagement in sexually violent practices during sexual relationships. Men are more likely to perpetrate these behaviors, while women are more likely to experience them. Importantly, both lifetime and last year pornography consumption are associated with an increased involvement in such practices. This relationship is partially mediated by sexually permissive attitudes, with a stronger mediation effect observed in men. Practitioners can leverage these insights to develop comprehensive strategies that mitigate the risks associated with pornography consumption.

Public willingness to intervene in episodes of violence against women is shaped by multiple factors. While bystander responses have been widely studied in cases of sexual assault and intimate partner violence, less is known about reactions to violence involving socially marginalised women, such as those in prostitution, who often face additional barriers to support due to stigma and discrimination. The current study analyses factors influencing individuals’ willingness to support the formal reporting of male-to-female episodes of violence, with particular attention to prostitution-related contexts. A factorial survey was administered in 2022 to a sample of 1,598 respondents (51.6

Evidence shows that the presence of third parties during face-to-face in-terviews can compromise data quality, as respondents may be more reluctant to answer sensitive questions and/or provide less accurate answers. This study analyzes the influence of both location and third-party presence on respondents' answers to sensitive questions. Using data from the Violence against Women Macro-Survey conducted in Spain in 2019 (n = 6,563), this study identifies some of the factors associated with the disclosure of intimate partner violence expe-riences within the current relationship. To do so, a series of logistic regression models were estimated, using each category of violence (i.e., physical, emotional and sexual violence, as well as controlling behaviors) as dependent variables. Independent variables include factors related to both the location where the inter-view took place and the people who were present during it. A series of personal characteristics of the respondents (e.g., age, employment status, disability), their partners (e.g., sex, nationality), and some variables referring to the relationship (e.g., relationship length, breadwinner) were also included. Results show that both the location where the interview took place and the presence of children are associated with the disclosure of violence experiences. It was also found that the interviewers more frequently recorded that they suspected situations of un-der-reporting when children were present, and when controlling behaviors and/ or emotional violence had been disclosed. These findings can be used from a practical perspective to inform interviewer training and data collection protocols when sensitive data is collected.

Evidence shows that blaming attitudes towards victims of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) are widespread, creating a social climate that condones this form of violence. The aim of the current study is to analyse the potential impact of multiple factors surrounding the scenario and some personal and attitudinal characteristics of the respondents on the responsibility attributed to victims and perpetrators of IPVAW. To achieve this, a factorial survey design in which each respondent ( N = 1,007; 51.1% women) received a unique vignette describing a hypothetical case of IPVAW was implemented in an online survey conducted in Spain. We found that most respondents (78.9%) indicated that the victim was not at all responsible for her own victimisation, whereas 73.7 per cent indicated that the perpetrator was very responsible for his own behaviour. Our results also show the prominent role that attitudes, as opposed to many characteristics of the abuse, play in evaluations of victim blame (that is, sexist beliefs and acceptability of IPVAW). Our findings reveal some persistence of victim-blaming attitudes despite years of public awareness and education efforts in Spain.

Estudios recientes muestran la elevada prevalencia de encuestados que realizan actividades secundarias mientras responden cuestionarios. Debido a la escasez de estudios y al posible impacto de la multitarea en la calidad de los datos, el presente trabajo analiza el porcentaje de encuestados que realizan multitasking y examina las actividades secundarias más frecuentes en una encuesta online conducida con panelistas en España (N = 1.007). Asimismo, analiza una serie de variables que se asocian con distintas formas de multitarea y examina los efectos de esta en la calidad de los datos. Los hallazgos mostraron una elevada prevalencia de encuestados multitarea (39,7%). Además, se encontró que el perfil de los participantes variaba en función del tipo de actividad realizada. El efecto de la multitarea en la calidad de los datos fue limitado, afectando fundamentalmente al tiempo de cumplimentación de la encuesta.

Public perceptions of the severity of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) play a crucial role in its prevention. This study examines the impact of multiple factors related to the scenario and respondent characteristics on the perceived severity of IPVAW. To achieve this, a factorial survey design was implemented using a non-probability-based sample in Spain ( N = 1007). The results indicate that 90.3% of respondents rated the scenario as severe. The perceived severity was influenced by both the details of the scenario and the characteristics of the respondents. These findings can inform the design of targeted awareness campaigns.

Las evidencias muestran que la presencia de terceras personas mientras se responden encuestas puede comprometer la calidad de los datos, ya que las personas encuestadas podrían ser más reticentes a responder preguntas de naturaleza sensible y/o proporcionar respuestas menos precisas. El principal objetivo de este estudio consiste en analizar la influencia de la ubicación y la presencia de terceros en las respuestas a una encuesta sobre temática sensible, como es la violencia en la pareja. Utilizando datos de la Macroencuesta de Violencia contra la Mujer realizada en el año 2019 en España (n = 6.563), este estudio identifica algunos de los factores relacionados con la revelación de experiencias de victimización sufridas en el ámbito de la pareja actual. Para ello, se estimaron una serie de modelos de regresión logística, utilizando cada categoría de violencia (i.e., violencia física, emocional, sexual y conductas de control) como variables dependientes. Las variables independientes incluyen factores relacionados tanto con el lugar donde se llevó a cabo la encuesta como las personas que se encontraban presentes durante la misma. También se incluyeron una serie de características personales de las mujeres encuestadas (p.ej., edad, situación laboral, discapacidad), sus parejas (p.ej., sexo, nacionalidad) y una serie de variables que hacían referencia a la relación de pareja (p.ej., tiempo de relación, persona que aporta más ingresos al hogar). Los resultados muestran que el lugar donde se realiza la encuesta y la presencia de hijos/as durante la misma se relacionan con la revelación de violencia. También se encontró que las entrevistadoras indicaron en mayor medida sospechar situaciones de ocultación de violencia cuando los/as hijos/as estaban presentes y cuando se habían reportado conductas de control y/o violencia emocional. Los hallazgos pueden emplearse desde una perspectiva aplicada para mejorar la formación que reciben las personas entrevistadoras e informar los protocolos de recogida de datos para encuestas que abordan temáticas sensibles. Evidence shows that the presence of third parties during face-to-face interviews can compromise data quality, as respondents may be more reluctant to answer sensitive questions and/or provide less accurate answers. This study analyzes the influence of both location and third-party presence on respondents’ answers to sensitive questions. Using data from the Violence against Women Macro-Survey conducted in Spain in 2019 (n = 6,563), this study identifies some of the factors associated with the disclosure of intimate partner violence experiences within the current relationship. To do so, a series of logistic regression models were estimated, using each category of violence (i.e., physical, emotional and sexual violence, as well as controlling behaviors) as dependent variables. Independent variables include factors related to both the location where the interview took place and the people who were present during it. A series of personal characteristics of the respondents (e.g., age, employment status, disability), their partners (e.g., sex, nationality), and some variables referring to the relationship (e.g., relationship length, breadwinner) were also included. Results show that both the location where the interview took place and the presence of children are associated with the disclosure of violence experiences. It was also found that the interviewers more frequently recorded that they suspected situations of under-reporting when children were present, and when controlling behaviors and/or emotional violence had been disclosed. These findings can be used from a practical perspective to inform interviewer training and data collection protocols when sensitive data is collected.

Although gender roles have continued to evolve, stereotypical perceptions about men and women persist. From a traditional perspective, men are viewed as aggressive, competitive, and dominant, whereas women are expected to be pretty, affectionate, and passive. The relevance of gender stereotypes lies in the way such expectations reinforce gender inequality and discrimination. Gender stereotyping is also linked to an increased acceptance of gender-based violence, as such conceptions are based on the premise that women are subordinate to men. The current study uses data from the Barometer on Youth and Gender, conducted by the Centro Reina Sofía in 2021 (N = 1201), to analyze the potential associations among gender stereotyping, support for feminism, and acceptance of gender-based violence among young people in Spain (15–29 years old). The results show that young people ascribe, to some extent, stereotypical characteristics to women and men and point to the existence of gender-based occupational stereotypes. Our results shed light on the role that gender stereotyping plays in support for feminism and the acceptance of gender-based violence. They also provide valuable information about the magnitude of gender-stereotypical perceptions among young men and women.

In Spain, knowledge about public attitudes towards the police is limited compared to other countries. This study contributes to fill gaps in the literature by examining a wide range of correlates of police legitimacy. Using data from the Spanish sample (N = 1,885) of the European Social Survey (ESS) Round 5, we estimate multivariate regression models with two measures of police legitimacy as outcome variables: moral alignment (alpha = .81) and duty to obey the police (alpha = .86). Correlates encompass a range of attitudinal measures, including those related to police activity, the sociopolitical and institutional context, and personal characteristics of the respondents. The results show that, in Spain, as in other countries, police legitimacy is primarily influenced by perceptions of procedural fairness and effectiveness. In addition, the study found that variables such as political orientation and attitudes towards the sociopolitical context are also relevant. These findings suggest that people's views of the police are linked to broader social and political factors, beyond their interactions with the police.

In Spain, knowledge about public attitudes towards the police is limited compared to other countries. This study contributes to fill gaps in the literature by examining a wide range of correlates of police legitimacy. Using data from the Spanish sample (N = 1,885) of the European Social Survey (ESS) Round 5, we estimate multivariate regression models with two measures of police legitimacy as outcome variables: moral alignment (α = .81) and duty to obey the police (α = .86). Correlates encompass a range of attitudinal measures, including those related to police activity, the sociopolitical and institutional context, and personal characteristics of the respondents. The results show that, in Spain, as in other countries, police legitimacy is primarily influenced by perceptions of procedural fairness and effectiveness. In addition, the study found that variables such as political orientation and attitudes towards the sociopolitical context are also relevant. These findings suggest that people’s views of the police are linked to broader social and political factors, beyond their interactions with the police.

Enjoyment of sexualization (EoS) occurs when people find appearance-based sexual attention from others to be positive and rewarding. Scholars have not consistently established if enjoyment of being sexualized may be a form of sexual empowerment, promoting positive body acceptance, control, and self-care, or instead an endorsement of sexist ideologies, based on the idea that being sexually appealing to men is a component of the feminine gender role. In order to shed light on this, the present study aimed to analyze whether enjoyment of sexualization may foster adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies in case of threat to a positive body image. We also considered the role of ambivalent sexism in EoS processes, as well as that of self-esteem in body coping strategies. Considering the increasing sexualization of men in Western societies, the same relationships were tested in both men and women adults by means of a multigroup moderation analysis. Participants were 513 subjects (32.3% men, M = 25.97 years old) recruited from the Italian general population. Results showed that enjoyment of sexualization was positively related to both adaptive (i.e., positive rational acceptance) and maladaptive strategies (i.e., appearance fixing). Hostile sexism was positively linked to EoS in both men and women, whereas benevolent sexism was positively linked to EoS in the case of women and negatively in the case of men. Implications about the ambivalent nature of enjoyment of sexualization are discussed.

Previous research shows that the direction of rating scales can influence participants' response behavior. Studies also suggest that the device used to complete online surveys might affect the susceptibility to these effects due to the different question layouts (e.g., horizontal grids vs. vertical individual questions). This article contributes to previous research by examining scale direction effects in an online multi-device survey conducted with panelists in Spain. In this experiment, respondents were randomly assigned to two groups where the scale direction was manipulated (incremental vs. decremental). Respondents completed the questionnaire using the device of their choosing (57.8% used PCs; 36.5% used smartphones; and 5.7% used tablets). The results show that scale direction influenced response distributions but did not significantly affect data quality. In addition, our findings indicate that scale direction effects were comparable across devices. Findings are discussed and implications are highlighted.

Past studies that have analyzed fear of victimization using samples composed of men and women have most frequently controlled for the effect of gender. This study not only controls for the effect of gender, but also examines how the predictors of fear of victimization may vary across gender. To do so, separate regression models for men and women were estimated and the corresponding z tests were calculated for the purpose of analyzing whether the differences between genders were significant. The results showed that women scored higher on the general fear of crime victimization scale, as well as for fear of becoming victims of each of the specific crimes under study. Religiosity had an equally significant effect on men and women's fear of victimization. Also, younger participants were more likely to fear being victims in the cases of both men and women, although this effect was even more pronounced among women. In addition, respondents' fear of victimization differed across gender based on sexual orientation. Finally, the results showed a few variables (political orientation and sexual victimization) that were only significant in the case of women, but not of men. The findings of this study confirm that fear of victimization and its predictors vary between women and men.

Journal Article The Impact of Confidentiality Assurances on Participants’ Responses to Sensitive Questions Get access Carmen M Leon, Carmen M Leon School of Law, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain All correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Carmen M. Leon, PhD, School of Law, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 1 Plaza de la Universidad, 02071 Albacete, Spain. E-mail: Carmen.Leon@uclm.es https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0591-6056 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Eva Aizpurua, Eva Aizpurua European Social Survey ERIC, University of London, London, UKSchool of Law, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Research in Social Sciences (TRiSS), Dublin, Ireland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7045-5535 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Sophie van der Valk Sophie van der Valk School of Law, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Research in Social Sciences (TRiSS), Dublin, Ireland Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar International Journal of Public Opinion Research, Volume 33, Issue 4, Winter 2021, Pages 1024–1038, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edaa039 Published: 25 March 2021

Abstract Background Body image concerns are prevalent among Brazilian adolescents and can lead to poor psychological and physical health. Yet, there is a scarcity of culturally-appropriate, evidence-based interventions that have been evaluated and made widely available. Chatbot technology (i.e., software that mimics written or spoken human speech) offers an innovative method to increase the scalability of mental health interventions for adolescents. The present protocol outlines the co-creation and evaluation of a body image chatbot for Brazilian adolescents via a partnership between academics, industry organisations and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Methods A two-armed fully remote randomised controlled trial will evaluate the chatbot’s effectiveness at improving body image and well-being. Adolescent girls and boys (N = 2800) aged 13–18 years recruited online will be randomly allocated (1:1) into either: 1) a body image chatbot or 2) an assessment-only control condition. Adolescents will engage with the chatbot over a 72-hour period on Facebook Messenger. Primary outcomes will assess the immediate and short-term impact of the chatbot on state- and trait-based body image, respectively. Secondary outcomes will include state- and trait-based affect, trait self-efficacy and treatment adherence. Discussion This research is the first to develop an evidence-informed body image chatbot for Brazilian adolescents, with the proposed efficacy trial aiming to provide support for accessible, scalable and cost-effective interventions that address disparities in body image prevalence and readily available resources. Trial registration number NCT04825184 , registered 30th March 2021.