In light of recent calls to investigate Gen-AI's impact on academic writing motivation, this study introduces an integrated motivational model. It examines the relationships among three key motivational constructs within the model: self-efficacy, future selves, and the perception of the context regarding its effectiveness in fulfilling basic psychological needs. Surveys were administered to 272 undergraduate English majors who attended Gen-AI mediated academic writing courses at the beginning (Time 1) and end of a semester (Time 2), followed by interviews with 9 students. The study yields three major findings. First, Time 1 and Time 2 structural equation modelling results indicate that the integrated model positions self-efficacy as the central motivational driver of academic writing performance, with basic psychological needs and future selves serving as indirect influences. Second, latent profile analysis reveals a motivational evolution among students, characterised by two motivational profiles at Time 1 and three at Time 2. Third, interview data show that Gen-AI usage tends to shape undergraduates' self-efficacy, ideal L2 self, and basic psychological needs, but not their ought-to L2 self. These findings suggest pedagogically actionable strategies for fostering self-efficacy in Gen-AI mediated writing instruction.

Research on classroom translanguaging has expanded rapidly, but the research tools for observing and coding translanguaging are conspicuous by their absence. Studies vary in how they segment classroom time, define translanguaging episodes, operationalize pedagogical functions and report coding reliability, which limits cross-study comparison and cumulative evidence-building. This method tutorial presents COLT-TL, an adaptation of the Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching observation scheme (COLT; Spada, 2024; Spada & Fröhlich, 1995) for translanguaging-focused classroom research. The adapted instrument retains COLT’s macro-level lesson segmentation while reconfiguring its discourse-level categories around a translanguaging episode layer. Episodes are coded for translanguaging type, pedagogical function, interactional direction, language directionality, material relationship, contextual notes, professional development entry points and duration. COLT-TL was developed and piloted across 38 secondary EFL lessons in Poland and Azerbaijan. Inter-coder agreement on core categorical variables reached κ = .85. The tutorial explains the adaptation rationale, demonstrates the coding procedure through worked classroom examples and discusses reliability procedures, scope limitations and transferability. COLT-TL does not propose a new theory of translanguaging, as its contribution is methodological: a principled and replicable observation instrument for making translanguaging visible as a structured, functional and sequential classroom practice in multilingual education contexts.

While pedagogical translanguaging (PT) has gained prominence as an approach for bridging learners' multilingual repertoires and monolingual teaching paradigms, secondary English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts remain underexamined, particularly following recent shifts in classroom diversity. This systematic review synthesizes 25 empirical studies of PT in secondary EFL education published between January 2023 and August 2025. Based on Reflexive Thematic Analysis, four interconnected themes were identified: (1) barriers to PT implementation due to structural, ideological, and teacher preparation constraints within institutional environments; (2) pedagogical rationales that integrate cognitive, affective, and sociocultural justifications; (3) observable classroom practices organized by pedagogical function, revealing strategic deployment of more-enabled and less-enabled languages; and (4) learning outcomes across cognitive, affective, and sociocultural domains. These themes reveal a fundamental tension: although translanguaging proves pragmatically necessary for effective EFL teaching, it remains systematically unsupported at the institutional level. Teachers justify and enact sophisticated multilingual practices, but without formal preparation, they tend to implement PT covertly within unsupportive structures, relying on knowledge that remains tacit and difficult to share. The review shows that PT has outpaced institutional recognition, calling for systems that treat it as professional expertise rather than tolerated improvisation.

Despite the increasing use of Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen-AI) in education, there is still a significant gap in understanding its effects on the situated- and future-driven motivation in academic writing. This longitudinal design-based research sought to explore variations in academic writing motivation of 110 Chinese university English learners. It focused on two constructs: situated motivation, as conceptualised by self-determination theory and future-oriented motivation, through the L2 motivational self system. Data were collected at the beginning, middle and end of one semester through a combination of surveys, Motometer graphs, stimulated recall interviews and semi-structured interviews. The analysis revealed three major findings. First, Gen-AI use produced a significant change in identified regulation within situated motivation, while other components of situated motivation were not measurably affected. Second, Gen-AI exerted a significant influence on future L2 selves within the future-driven motivation. Third, the study underscores the critical role of basic psychological needs for autonomy and competence in bridging situated motivational experiences with the development of the ideal L2 self. Overall, the findings suggest that a pedagogically informed integration of Gen-AI, designed to nurture autonomy and competence, is vital for fostering situated and future-driven motivation in academic writing. (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)110(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) (sic)(sic):(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic):(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic);(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic); (sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).

Implementation of pedagogical translanguaging in monolingual-framed secondary school systems is fraught with controversy. This study examines translanguaging practices in Poland and Azerbaijan, two post-socialist contexts where target-language-only norms coexist with linguistically diverse student populations. Drawing on a mixed-methods design comprising 38 audio-recorded English as a foreign language lessons across seven secondary schools, a teacher questionnaire, stakeholder interviews and document analysis, the study uses a presence–function–legitimation triad that asks where teacher-initiated translanguaging falls along a continuum from spontaneous translanguaging through planned translanguaging to pedagogical translanguaging , what functions it serves and whether it is legitimated as professional pedagogy. In Azerbaijan, overt teacher translanguaging was concentrated among a small subset of teachers and functionally confined to comprehension repair and behavioural regulation. In Poland, no oral teacher-produced episodes were identified, though covert multilingual scaffolding was present. No teacher in either context met the criteria for pedagogical translanguaging, although instances of planned translanguaging were observed in Azerbaijan. The legitimation gap is sharpest not where translanguaging is absent but where teachers enact multilingual moves yet minimize and disavow them within the professional register, a practice this study identifies as covert translanguaging. The divergence between observed and reported practices is interpreted as evidence of constraint ecologies that limit the professional ownership of multilingual pedagogy in these school settings.

Pedagogical translanguaging (PT) cannot rest on positive attitudes alone. In monolingual accountability regimes in which reliance on PT is not professionally and institutionally supported, teachers need ways to defend multilingual practice as legitimate teaching. Although short-cycle continuing professional development (CPD) can contribute to legitimizing PT, its role in making public endorsement professionally available has hitherto been underexamined. To fill this gap, this study analyzes workshop-embedded discussions from a CPD intervention with 48 teachers in four schools in Poland and Azerbaijan. The analysis focused on how teachers positioned PT within professional practice, and the findings revealed that, where target-language exclusivity remained salient, teachers described multilingual practices but withheld endorsement. However, where discussion was more open, PT entered shared professional reasoning, although across sites, acceptance remained bounded by proficiency, stage or function. With these results in mind, legitimation of PT is specified as a bridging CPD outcome visible in teacher talk.

The rapid spread of English-medium instruction (EMI) is one of the most outstanding transformations that universities have lately undergone. Whereas EMI teachers' questioning practices have received some attention, the study of the type of questions posed by students is conspicuous by its absence. Since the use of English as the means of instruction may directly affect students' willingness to ask questions in class, this study aims at examining what type of questions are usually asked by students and whether there is any noticeable difference depending on the discipline. With this objective in mind, 36 lessons from three different disciplines were recorded and analysed. The recordings amounted to 44 hours and 14 minutes and were fully transcribed prior to their analysis. The results revealed that students' questions were mainly limited to confirmation checks and referential questions, and that the teachers' individual characteristics exerted a greater influence than the discipline under scrutiny.

The present study explores how language of instruction influences students' anxiety in higher education in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) in Spain. Given the minority status of Basque and the role of English as the main foreign language (FL) in the BAC, this study examined students' emotional responses to learning in English-medium instruction (EMI) and Basque-medium instruction (BMI) courses. The sample consisted of 216 undergraduate students enrolled in three universities located in the BAC. A mixed-methods approach was used, in which quantitative data collected through a questionnaire analysed anxiety levels overall, and in relation to three variables (gender, linguistic repertoire and proficiency) from a longitudinal perspective. In addition, qualitative insights from interviews provided a deeper understanding of students' perceptions and personal experiences in the classroom. The results indicated significant differences in anxiety levels between the EMI and BMI contexts, with higher anxiety levels observed in EMI courses. Moreover, while the effect of the three variables was also statistically significant, no changes in anxiety were found over time. Therefore, this study suggests that fostering language proficiency and providing tailored support could be crucial in helping students to cope with anxiety-related challenges, while enhancing the learning experience in multilingual educational settings.

The internationalisation process has encouraged the spread of English-medium instruction (EMI) in universities all over the world. Whereas the purported benefits of EMI are more often than not taken for granted, there are many issues related to what is actually happening in EMI classrooms that still need to be looked into. In this vein, the use of interactional metadiscourse markers when delivering content in the lingua franca and the potential impact of the disciplinary culture are two issues that have hitherto been largely overlooked. Since research studies indicate that teachers in the arts and social sciences tend to use a higher number of metadiscourse markers than those in the hard sciences, the impact of the discipline in classroom discourse deserves further attention. With a view to fill in this research gap, in this paper we analysed the 29,469 interactional metadiscourse markers found in 36 lectures of three different disciplines, namely economics, engineering and history. The overall distribution of interactional metadiscourse markers revealed that engagement markers happened to be the dominant category by an ample margin, followed by self-mentions, hedges, boosters and attitudes markers. In addition, statistically significant differences were found in the use of interactional markers across the three disciplines, a fact that should be considered in professional development courses. The pedagogical implications to be drawn from these findings and some future directions for research are also put forth. (c) 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Higher education institutions have witnessed an unprecedented surge in the number of programmes offered in English. As English-medium instruction (EMI) courses at university level continue their spread across the globe, EMI students from all contexts are facing a double challenge, since they are expected to develop simultaneously the field-specific knowledge and the linguistic competence required to understand and process such knowledge in a foreign language. While there is a growing body of research delving into students' motivation towards EMI, their experiences in such environment and the potential motivational fluctuations these may undergo over time are still unexplored. The aim of this paper was to analyse the evolution of EMI students' motivation and anxiety over the course of three academic years. Specifically, it examines EMI-related affective factors of a group of students (N=19) from two different degrees (i.e., History, and Engineering) from a public university in the north of Spain. Data gathered via focus groups in three consecutive academic years showed that students were generally motivated and positive towards their EMI courses and that their anxiety levels improved after having experienced EMI. However, the students from the two degrees reported different (de)motivating factors in EMI, which evolved over time. Die Anzahl englischsprachiger Studieng & auml;nge an Hochschulen hat stark zugenommen. Da sich englischsprachige Lehrveranstaltungen (English-medium instruction, EMI) weltweit ausbreiten, stehen EMI-Studierende aus verschiedenen Kontexten vor einer doppelten Herausforderung: Sie m & uuml;ssen gleichzeitig fachspezifische Kenntnisse erwerben und die sprachliche Kompetenz entwickeln, um diese Kenntnisse in einer Fremdsprache zu verstehen und zu verarbeiten. W & auml;hrend es bereits eine wachsende Zahl von Studien gibt, die sich mit der Motivation von EMI-Studierenden befassen, sind ihre Erfahrungen in einem solchen Umfeld und m & ouml;gliche Motivationsver & auml;nderungen im Laufe der Zeit noch wenig erforscht. Ziel dieser Studie war es, die Entwicklung der Motivation und Angst von EMI-Studierenden & uuml;ber drei akademische Jahre hinweg zu analysieren. Konkret wurden die EMI-bezogenen affektiven Faktoren einer Gruppe von Studierenden (N=19) aus zwei verschiedenen Studieng & auml;ngen (Geschichte und Ingenieurwesen) einer & ouml;ffentlichen Universit & auml;t im Norden Spaniens untersucht. Daten, die durch Fokusgruppen in drei aufeinanderfolgenden akademischen Jahren erhoben wurden, zeigte, dass die Studierenden im Allgemeinen motiviert und positiv gegen & uuml;ber ihren EMI-Kursen eingestellt waren und ihr Angstniveau verbesserte sich nach den ersten Erfahrungen mit EMI. Die Studierenden der beiden Studieng & auml;nge berichteten & uuml;ber unterschiedliche (de-)motivierende Faktoren in EMI, die sich im Laufe der Zeit entwickelten. Las instituciones de ense & ntilde;anza superior han sido recientemente testigos de un aumento sin precedentes del n & uacute;mero de programas ofertados en ingl & eacute;s. A medida que los cursos EMI (Ingl & eacute;s como Medio de Instrucci & oacute;n) siguen extendi & eacute;ndose, los estudiantes se enfrentan a un doble reto, ya que deben desarrollar simult & aacute;neamente los conocimientos espec & iacute;ficos de su especialidad y la competencia ling & uuml;& iacute;stica necesaria para comprender y procesar dichos conocimientos en una lengua extranjera. No obstante, la motivaci & oacute;n de los estudiantes EMI y las fluctuaciones motivacionales que pueden sufrir con el tiempo siguen sin explorarse. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la evoluci & oacute;n de la motivaci & oacute;n y la ansiedad de los estudiantes EMI durante tres cursos acad & eacute;micos. Espec & iacute;ficamente, se examinaron los factores afectivos de un grupo de estudiantes (N=19) de dos titulaciones diferentes (i.e., Historia e Ingenier & iacute;a) de una universidad sita en Espa & ntilde;a. Los datos cualitativos recogidos a trav & eacute;s de grupos de discusi & oacute;n durante tres a & ntilde;os acad & eacute;micos consecutivos revelaron que los estudiantes se mostraban en general motivados y positivos hacia sus cursos de EMI, al tiempo que sus niveles de ansiedad mejoraban con el correr de los a & ntilde;os. Sin embargo, los estudiantes de las dos titulaciones mostraron diferentes factores (des)motivadores que fueron evolucionando con el tiempo. Plac & oacute;wki szkolnictwa wy & zdot;szego do & sacute;wiadczaj & aogon; bezprecedensowego wzrostu liczby program & oacute;w oferowanych w j & eogon;zyku angielskim. W miar & eogon; rozprzestrzeniania si & eogon; zaj & eogon;& cacute; uniwersyteckich w j & eogon;zyku angielskim (English-medium instruction, EMI), studenci staj & aogon; przed podw & oacute;jnym wyzwaniem, gdy & zdot; oczekuje si & eogon; od nich jednoczesnego rozwijania wiedzy specjalistycznej w danej dziedzinie jak i kompetencji j & eogon;zykowych niezb & eogon;dnych do rozumienia i przetwarzania tej wiedzy w j & eogon;zyku obcym. Nimniej jednak motywacja student & oacute;w ucz & eogon;szczaj & aogon;cych na zaj & eogon;cia EMI, jak i potencjalne wahania, kt & oacute;rym mo & zdot;e ona z czasem ulega & cacute;, wci & aogon;& zdot; pozostaj & aogon; niezbadane. Celem niniejszej pracy by & lstrok;a analiza czynnik & oacute;w afektywnych student & oacute;w EMI i ich ewolucji na przestrzeni trzech lat akademickich. W szczeg & oacute;lno & sacute;ci zbadane zosta & lstrok;y motywacja i l & eogon;k zwi & aogon;zane z EMI w grupie student & oacute;w (N=19) z dw & oacute;ch r & oacute;& zdot;nych kierunk & oacute;w (tj. Historii i In & zdot;ynierii) na hiszpa & nacute;skim uniwersytecie publicznym. Analiza danych zebranych za po & sacute;rednictwem grup fokusowych przeprowadzonych w ci & aogon;gu trzech kolejnych lat wykaza & lstrok;a, & zdot;e studenci byli og & oacute;lnie zmotywowani i pozytywnie nastawieni do kurs & oacute;w EMI, a ich poziom l & eogon;ku obni & zdot;y & lstrok; si & eogon; z biegiem czasu. Studenci obu kierunk & oacute;w zg & lstrok;aszali r & oacute;& zdot;ne (de)motywuj & aogon;ce czynniki zwi & aogon;zane z zaj & eogon;ciami EMI, kt & oacute;re zmienia & lstrok;y si & eogon; z up & lstrok;ywem czasu.

The research fields of second language acquisition in general and L2 writing in particular have been dominated by studies in which English is the language under scrutiny. However, many different researchers have claimed that it is high time to consider languages other than English (LOTEs), since multilingualism is the norm rather than the exception all over the world. In particular, minority languages have been largely overlooked in the literature on L2 writing, a research gap that this study intends to fill in. With this objective in mind, this research examines the impact of the participants’ L1 (Basque or Spanish) on their written production. The sample was made up of 9767 participants from the Basque Autonomous community in Spain, who completed a writing test aimed at assessing the C1 level (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) in Basque in five different points in time. The results revealed differences in writing competence in favour of L1=Basque participants when compared with their L1=Spanish counterparts, especially as far as the criterion of accuracy was concerned. The study concludes by providing insights that will be useful in other international educational contexts in which a minority and a majority language share co-official status.

English-medium instruction (EMI) programmes are on the upswing in universities all over the world. However, the literature indicates that EMI instructors hardly pay any attention to the language aspect, in the belief that they are content –and not language– teachers. In an attempt to make EMI teachers reflect on the paramount role that language and, in particular, teacher-fronted questions play in their classes, in this study four EMI history teachers were video-recorded during six two-hour-long sessions each. Following Gall and Acheson (2011), the three steps of clinical supervision were implemented: planning conference, classroom observation, and feedback conference. By including the teachers as active participants in the process, both the researchers and the teachers looked at the data gathered in the classroom observations and analysed them. As a result of the side-by-side supervision, decisions were made on an equal footing by the researcher and the teacher. This model of supervision provides EMI teachers with objective feedback on their instruction, while they are encouraged to reach their own conclusions. Differences in the receptiveness to the reflective practice among the teachers were observed, suggesting the need to work with teachers on the benefits of professional teaching interventions, such as the one described here.

At a time when multilingualism is spreading in many universities the world over, monolingual mindsets still tend to predominate when analyzing language issues. However, there is an increasing agreement in academia at the tertiary level about the need to abandon monolingual ideologies and classroom practices in order to provide adequate cognitive support to multilingual students. Research on language attitudes has traditionally approached languages individually, as if they were separate and compartmentalized entities. In an attempt to overcome this fractional view of multilingualism, this study embraces a holistic approach to study language attitudes. The sample of the study was made up of 789 students from a South African university who completed a questionnaire that included both traditional and holistic scales. The statistical analyses indicated that the influence of independent variables such as the L1 or the language more predominantly spoken clearly diminished when the results of the holistic scale were compared with those of the monolingually oriented scale. These findings confirm the need to rely on new approaches and methodologies of research, as the treatment of languages on an equal basis by adopting a holistic approach helps to provoke a positive attitudinal change and to foster the development of multilingual mindsets.

Research on the effectivity of PowerPoint presentations as an adjunct to theoretical and practical content during university lectures has garnered significant yet inconclusive findings. Specifically, how multimodal academic content should be organised to aid communication remains unclear. Legitimation Code Theory (LCT) introduces the concept of 'semantic waves' as an effective means to understand cumulative knowledge-building practices by modelling how forms of academic content are unpacked and repacked to facilitate understanding. This study applied 'semantic waves' to better understand how academic knowledge is constructed in multimodal PowerPoint presentations and whether differences exist based on discipline, language of instruction and modes used. Seventy-two lectures from subjects taught in the L1 and English-medium instruction were examined across four disciplines at two Spanish universities. Results showed that slide content in the soft sciences developed semantic waves to a greater extent, particularly in L1 Arts & Humanities lectures. Limiting slide content to the combination of text and graphics appeared to constrain scaffolding strategies in the process of meaning-making, while video content was linked to semantic waving. Finally, some pedagogical implications based on these results are presented.

The meaning of the term 'Basque Country' may not always be as straightforward as one might believe, as it can mean different things to different speakers depending on their political stance. From a purely linguistic and cultural perspective, it refers to the speakers of the Basque language living in a region that straddles the national border between France and Spain along the Pyrenees mountains. This area is divided into three different political entities: The Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) and Navarre in Spain, and the Northern Basque Country in France. According to the Basque Government (2019), in 2016 the territory of the Basque language had a total population of over 3,130,000 inhabitants, 28.4% of whom were Basque speakers, 16.4% passive Basque speakers – who can speak or understand some Basque, and 55.2% non-Basque speakers – those who can neither understand nor speak it. In this chapter, I will focus on the BAC because 70% of the Basque population live in it (Basque Government, 2019), which means that the situation of this autonomous community (one of the 17 that make up Spain) clearly determines the reading for the Basque Country as a whole. In addition, the vast majority of the research carried out on EMI in Basque higher education institutions has been undertaken in the BAC. The BAC consists of three provinces: Araba (whose capital is Vitoria-Gasteiz), Bizkaia (Bilbao-Bilbo), and Gipuzkoa (San Sebastián-Donostia).