Despite global and national commitments to forest restoration, challenges such as deforestation and forest degradation persist due to several factors. Ethiopia’s Dry Afromontane forest, located along the Great Rift Valley escarpment, one of the prioritized global biodiversity hotspots, hosts diverse flora and fauna but is severely threatened. Though there are restoration efforts to mitigate these threats, limited empirical evidence exists regarding early stage ecological outcomes within the restoration framework. This study assesses changes in woody species diversity, structure, biomass, and carbon stock due to contribution of forest and landscape restoration (FLR) efforts implemented in the degraded Dry Afromontane forest of Desa’a since 2018. It is a comparative study utilizing forest inventory data collected in 2018/19 and 2024. Data were collected from fourth-four permanent monitoring plots, each measuring 20 m × 20 m, systematically laid in a grid across the buffer (vegetation cover below 40%) and core zones (vegetation cover above 40%) of the forest section. The results showed a significant (P < 0.05) improvement in species diversity and richness in the adult vegetation layer, with varying levels of significance observed across the regeneration layers (seedling and sapling). Significant increases in woody plant density were also observed across several growth stages comparing across the study years. Aboveground carbon stock in the buffer zone increased significantly (P < 0.05) with the mean rising from 25.1 to 29.5 t C ha-1 in the 2018/9 and 2024, respectively. These finding provide insights to inform and operationalize future restoration efforts in other similarly degraded Dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia.

Agroforestry (AF) and related land use (LU) modelling has emerged as an essential scientific tool to understand complex interactions between ecological processes, socio-economic drivers, and spatial land-use dynamics, and to support science-based decision-making for sustainable land management. This paper reviews the state of the art scientific knowledge on AF and related LU models. Using systematically selected academic articles, we trace and discuss the development of AF and related LU model literature across time, space, model types, characteristics, and applications. The results showed that optimization/economic, spatially explicit, and process-based models dominate, while agent-based and machine learning approaches remain underutilized. These models generate complementary knowledge on socio-economic drivers of land use decisions, biophysical processes, spatial dynamics, and decision-making. Methodologically, isolated, deterministic assessment approaches toward integrated, multi-scale, and scenario-based systems, incorporating uncertainty and cross-disciplinary linkages. Increasing integration of ecological, economic, and social dimensions reflects a shift toward sustainability-oriented modelling, although social and cultural aspects remain underrepresented. Applications are concentrated on plot and regional scales, with limited multi-scale integration. While many models have decision support potential, only a small proportion are operationalized into formal tools. Key challenges include data scarcity, scale mismatches, model complexity, and limited representation of realistic human behavior. Specific gaps persist in validation, uncertainty handling, and socio-economic integration. Future research should enhance the quality of input data, integrate multiple model types, and improve stakeholder relevance. Emerging technologies, such as GIS, remote sensing, and artificial intelligence offer significant potential to advance model accuracy, scalability, and decision-support capacity.

This study aimed to investigate the soil seed banks in the Moremi Game Reserve Riparian Woodlands (MGRWs) of the Okavango Delta, northern Botswana, from March 2019 to June 2019. We examined species richness and diversity, determined densities, assessed the spatial distribution of seeds in the soil, and compared the similarity in species composition between the standing vegetation and soil seed bank flora. A total of 124 plant species were identified in the litter and top 9 cm soil layers with a mean density of 1933 seeds m(-2). Herbs, grasses, sedges, and woody plants were represented by 69, 25, 17, and 13 species, respectively, in 33 families and 92 genera. The overall H'diversity and evenness of the soil seed bank in the MGRWs were 3.7 and 0.77, respectively. The results revealed that Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Asteraceae are the most dominant families in all the germinated species. Four plant communities, namely Kohautia virgata-Ammania baccifera, Bidens pilosa-Urochloa mosambisensis, Setaria verticillata-Brachiaria deflexa, and Cynodon dactylon-Cyperus longus were identified from the soil seed bank. Bray-Curtis ordination showed that there was an overlap between these communities in terms of seed bank composition. However, MRPP analysis showed that there was significant (P < 0.05) separation between germinated soil seed bank communities. The overall spatial horizontal distribution of seeds varied among sampling quadrats while the vertical distribution of seeds exhibited the highest densities occurring in the upper 3 cm of the soil and gradually decreasing densities with increasing depth.

Herbivore browsing can influence the structure, composition, and processes of an ecosystem, and its effects can cascade to other functional components, especially when coupled with other disturbances. Ungulate browsing is not random, as it can be influenced by various biophysical factors. This study assessed overall herbivore browse utilisation in the Kazuma Forest Reserve (KFR) in the Chobe District of Northern Botswana at two scales of aggregation: vegetation class and study area. Vegetation of the KFR can be divided into three broad classes: shrubland vegetation, grassland vegetation, and woodland vegetation from which 23 sampling plots were selected. In each sampling plot, browsed and unbrowsed terminal shoots of all woody species were counted, from which browse utilisation and selection were determined. In total, 46 woody species were recorded in the KFR. The Sorenson Similarity Index reveals a weak overlap in species composition across the three vegetation classes of the KFR. Overall proportionate browse utilisation by the herbivore community of the KFR was influenced by vegetation type, whereas selection was not. Utilisation of most woody species was low, and few species were preferentially browsed by the KFR herbivore community. Both woody species utilisation and selection were not consistent across the two scales of aggregation. Woodland vegetation, on nutrient-poor Kalahari Sands, was associated with the least and highest proportion of browsed and unbrowsed woody species, respectively. However, even low browsing pressure can effect notable changes in ecosystem structure, composition, and hence function. The results of this study did not find any effect of predation risk on browse utilisation or selection across the three vegetation classes of the KFR. In conclusion, this study has laid a benchmark for future monitoring of browsing pressure and changes in wood species community structure in the KFR. It recommends further research to assess the effect of environmental and biological factors on browse utilisation and selection in the KFR.

Agroforestry conserves biodiversity while providing various environmental and socioeconomic benefits, yet information on the link between plant diversity and environmental and socioeconomic factors is limited. This study examined how perennial plant species diversity and density related to socioeconomic and environmental variables under two selected agroforestry practices. The study was conducted in Tarmaber district of the central highlands of Ethiopia, using data from 122 plots across 64 households. The study used a linear mixed model to analyze the data. Fifty perennial plant species were identified, with 60

Environmental and health risks stemming from traditional biomass fuel use remain a significant challenge in developing countries like Ethiopia. Improved cooking stoves have become a viable option to reduce these adverse effects; however, the adoption and use rates remain low. This study aims to analyze the performance of Mirt-improved stoves and identify the factors that determine its adoption in Northwest Ethiopia. A kitchen performance test (KPT) was conducted based on three days of repeated firewood measurement on randomly selected 15 Mirt-stove users and 20 three-stone stove user households. Additionally, 420 households were surveyed to identify factors determining the adoption of Mirt-stove. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. An independent t-test was also employed to analyze the kitchen performance test. The KPT results reveal that Mirt-stoves saved about 5.4 kg of firewood/injera baking session, which translates to about 777 kg (40.5

Acacia decurrens (hereafter Acacia) agroforestry system has been expanding rapidly in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia. The agroforestry system provides multiple eco-environmental services; however, there is inadequate quantitative evidence on its livelihood benefits. This study, therefore, investigated the livelihood benefits and challenges of Acacia-based agroforestry system in the Awi area, Northwest Ethiopia. Data was collected through household survey quetionnaires (296 randomly selected Acacia growers), focused-group discussions, interviews, and observations. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used for the data analysis. The findings showed that crop production, charcoal making, animal rearing, and fuelwood selling were the major sources of livelihood. Notwithstanding the complex challenges (Acacia pests/diseases, traditional charcoal-making, limited road access and market opportunities, negative human-health impacts, and high production cost), Acacia-based agroforestry positively affected farmers livelihoods. Comparatively, the natural, physical, financial, human and social capital indices of farmers were higher by 0.25, 0.24, 0.43, 0.25, and 0.06, respectively, in the post-than pre-Acacia periods. The overall livelihood index of farmers increased from 0.47 (pre-Acacia) to 0.71 in the post-Acacia period. The study concluded that this agroforestry practice has immense livelihood benefits, although diverse challenges question its sustainability. Therefore, short and long-term strategies should be designed to strengthen the opportunities and address the challenges.

This study aimed to evaluate the size of Senegalia mellifera seeds and determine the most effective scarification techniques to improve germination. The experiment, conducted at Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, involved ten presowing treatments, including control, nicking, soaking in sulphuric acid for different durations, and boiling water for varying periods. A completely randomized design (CRD) was used for the experiment. Germination data was transformed using arcsine to meet normal distribution requirements and then analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed that the presowing treatments had a statistically significant effect on germination (P<0.00001). Seeds treated with sulphuric acid, nicking, and those left untreated exhibited the highest germination rates, while seeds treated with boiling water showed the lowest germination percentages. These findings indicate that the seed coats of S. mellifera are permeable to water and air, and presowing treatments do not show any significant effect on the successful germination of S. mellifera seed.

Land use change threatens the integrity of riparian woodland vegetation. The aim of this study was to investigate the diversity and population structure of riparian plant species in protected and communal areas. A total of 71 transects were sampled from each of the protected and communal areas. Total species richness recorded was 36 and 38 in communal and protected areas, respectively. Species diversity was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the protected than communal areas. Vachellia tortilis (communal areas) and Croton megalobotrys (both areas) showed a reverse J shaped pattern with more individuals in the lower diameter size classes than in the large ones. Dichrostachys cinerea (both areas), Ziziphus mucronata (communal areas), Combretum imberbe (protected areas), C. hereroense (protected areas), Berchemia discolor (protected areas) and Vachellia erioloba (communal areas) showed a reverse-J distribution pattern, but with missing size classes. Philenoptera violacea (protected areas) was characterized by a bell-shaped distribution with more individuals in the middle size classes than in the lower and upper ones while Combretum hereroense, C. imberbe and B. discolor were characterized by irregular population structure in communal areas. Croton megalobotrys, D. cinerea, C. imberbe, C. hereroense, Z. mucronata, B. discolor and S. erubescens had higher Important Value Indices (IVIs) in protected than communal areas. Comparatively, Vachellia tortilis, P. violacea and V. erioloba had higher IVIs in communal than protected areas. We recommended that species with J-shaped population structure and those with only one size class be protected to enable them to attain healthy population structures.

In the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia, rapid land use land cover (LULC) change and small-scale forest expansion has taken place due to the engagement of small-holder farmers. This study was aimed to understand the trends, magnitudes, drivers of LULC changes, and small-scale forest expansion in three Woredas of the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands, during 1987 to 2020 periods. The study employed a hybrid classification technique to group the images in to LULC classes. Moreover, key informants were used to assess the drivers of LULC change and small-scale forest expansion. The results indicated that small-scale forest increased from 2.5

Although Moringa is an important vegetable crop elsewhere, its nutritional and non-food uses are not widely known in Botswana community. This study was conducted to determine the chemical composition and mineral contents of leaves of Moringa oleifera trees grown in Gaborone, Botswana. The leaf samples were collected from Moringa trees grown in the backyards of six different households in Gaborone city. They were dried separately at 55 ºC for 24 h and then ground to obtain a powder for analysis. The data on the proximate composition of the Moringa samples were subjected to Analysis of Variance to determine statistical differences among the mean values. The overall mean values of moisture, fat, protein, ash, fiber and total available carbohydrates of the leaves were 6.93 ± 0.16, 7.78 ± 0.13, 27.1 ± 0.43, 7.34 ± 0.31, 9.1 ± 1 and 46.5 ± 3%, respectively. The Moringa leaves contained average values of 520 ± 96.0, 7.7 ± 1.3, 30.1 ± 15.5, 0.8 ± 0.1, 82.6 ± 6.4, 1.7 ± 0.2, 1.6 ± 0.2 and 0.02 ± 0.00 mg/100g of Calcium, Iron, Sodium, Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum, Manganese and Chromium, respectively. Significant differences were observed for moisture, fat, protein and ash contents among the six Moringa samples. The results showed that the leaves are rich in nutrients, particularly with high amounts of protein and ash. This suggests that Moringa leaf could serve as an important protein and mineral supplement in the diet and can be consumed as a vegetable in Botswana. The difference in composition observed between the Moringa leaf samples suggests a possible genotypic difference between the Moringa trees used in this experiment. Thus, there is a need for further study to verify this. Graphical Abstract

Agroforestry practices play a vital role in improving rural income and livelihoods, yet quantifying their contributions in Ethiopia remains limited. This study investigated the contribution of agroforestry practices to rural income and livelihoods, along with factors influencing income derived from these practices. A two-stage sampling method was employed to select 160 rural households engaged in home garden and woodlot agroforestry practices. Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Descriptive statistics, content analysis, generalized linear model, Mann–Whitney U test, and financial analysis tools were used to analyze and interpret the data. The results demonstrated that agroforestry practices provide numerous benefits to rural households, including fuelwood, charcoal, poles, construction materials, fodder, perennial crops, food crops, and fruits for both consumption and income generation. Agroforestry practices significantly increased farm income, contributing 18.2

Since recent years, conversions of croplands, grasslands or cash crop fields to eucalypt plantations are becoming common trends in Ethiopia. Reasons for the conversions are better return from eucalypt than crop farming. This study tried to assess the land use competition impacts of eucalypt plantations with other land uses in the Western Gurage Watersheds, Central-south Ethiopia. The specific objectives were to investigate households’ and experts’ perceptions on land use competition of eucalypt plantations; and to assess perceptions on impacts of eucalypt plantation and copping strategies. Samples from three woredas (districts) namely Cheha, Enemorna Ener, and Eza located in the Watersheds were used. These woredas were purposefully selected due to large coverage of the watersheds, extensive expansion of eucalypts farming and thereby high eucalypts pole production, incidences of serious competition of eucalypts with other uses, and the presences of road accessibility for data collection. To get detail information on perception of the households and experts, in-depth discussions with focus groups and key informant were employed. Individual farm households whose age were greater than 70 years old and knowledgeable persons to discuss on the issue of eucalypt plantations were selected purposefully with the guidance of each kebele (sub-district) chairpersons and district experts. Thereafter, three focus group discussions with farm households were conducted in the three districts. Key informant interviews were conducted with purposefully selected and well experienced individual farm households and experts in each district. The result showed that young farmers planted from 1000 to 5000 eucalypt seedlings on lands previously covered with crops. The young people resisted advice from elders and converted farmlands to eucalypt plantations. Previous practitioners (adoptees) who benefitted much from eucalypt products tended for further expansion. This, in turn, resulted in serious land use competition with farmland and grasslands. To mitigate such serious competition with food crops and grasslands, and to sustain the livelihood and environment, appropriate management, e.g. site selection and substitutions by horticultural and cash crops using micro irrigation schemes for market needs are recommended. Conducting in-depth participatory research and specific policy ratification and promulgation on eucalypt plantations will curb its serious land use competition with farm and grazing lands.

Agroforestry is an emerging livelihood strategy for meeting the fundamental requirements of millions of rural households, yet quantifying its expansion and management practices in Ethiopia remains limited. This study investigated the trends, extents and drivers of agroforestry expansion and related management practices in the central highlands of Ethiopia. A two-stage sampling method was employed to select 160 rural households that engaged in home garden and woodlot agroforestry practices. The data were collected via semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions and analyzed using descriptive statistics, content analysis, the Kruskal-Wallis test, and the Mann‒Whitney U test. The results demonstrated that there was a significant difference in the mean size (in hectares) of home gardens and woodlot agroforestry practices (p < 0.05). There has been an increasing trend in the adoption and expansion of agroforestry practices, both in home gardens and woodlots. The rate of agroforestry expansion increased from 0.23% before the 1980s to 3.95% between 2011 and 2022. The expansion of agroforestry practices, particularly the increase in home garden size and woodlot establishment, was positively influenced by increased market demand, increased seedling availability, increased availability of labor, improved knowledge of agroforestry benefits, and increased proximity to homes and roads. Furthermore, the findings demonstrated that rural households implemented weeding, pruning, thinning, looping, pollarding, fertilizer application, watering, coppicing, fencing, and mulching to maintain and optimize the productivity of their agroforestry systems. Policymakers and stakeholders should consider developing targeted programs and incentives to further encourage the expansion of both home gardens and woodlot agroforestry practices.

The seeds of Guibourtia coleosperma serve as potential source of nutritious food for rural communities in northern Botswana though underutilized. The objective of this study was to determine the proximate and mineral composition of G. coleosperma seeds collected from northern Botswana. Seed samples were collected from Shakawe and Kasane areas in northern Botswana. The proximate composition and mineral contents of the seed were determined following standard procedures. The data were analyzed using T-test. Seeds collected from Shakawe had average moisture (%), crude fat (%), crude fiber (%), crude protein (%), ash (%), total carbohydrate (%) and energy (kcal/100g) contents of 8.48 ± 0.29, 9.24 ± 0.31, 4.72 ± 0.60, 15.34 ± 0.48, 2.40 ± 0.02, 59.81 ± 1.00 and 383.80 ± 4.81, respectively. The corresponding values for seeds collected from Kasane were 9.00 ± 0.10, 10.17 ± 0.37, 7.13 ± 0.21, 16.44 ± 0.43, 2.45 ± 0.02, 54.80 ± 0.58 and 376.50 ± 2.22, respectively. Seeds collected from Kasane had significantly higher (p< 0.05) crude fat, crude fiber, crude protein and ash contents than seeds collected from Shakawe. However, the total carbohydrates content of seeds collected from Shakawe was significantly higher (p< 0.05) than those collected from Kasane. No significant differences (p> 0.05) were observed for moisture and energy contents between the seed samples collected from the two locations. The predominate proximate component in the seeds was total carbohydrate followed by crude protein and, therefore, the seeds can serve as good sources of energy and protein. The average zinc, iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, sodium (mg/100 g) and phosphorus (mg/g) contents of seeds collected from Shakawe were 2.96 ± 0.53, 2.40 ± 0.27, 116.80 ± 2.82, 468.69 ± 19.28, 316.70 ± 21.15, 1.21 ± 0.67 and 1.35 ± 0.04, respectively. The corresponding values for False Mopane seeds collected from Kasane were 2.53 ± 0.31, 3.34 ± 0.18, 173.65 ± 5.83, 460.86 ± 10.53, 367.59 ± 15.37, 3.51 ± 0.44 and 1.45 ± 0.12, respectively. The values for iron, magnesium, calcium and sodium were significantly higher (p< 0.05) for seeds collected from Kasane than those collected from Shakawe. However, no significant differences (p> 0.05) were observed between the seed samples collected from the two locations for zinc, potassium and phosphorus. Quantitatively, the predominant mineral observed in seed was potassium followed by calcium. The seeds could serve as good source of magnesium, iron, zinc, calcium and potassium since they contribute higher proportions of the recommended daily intake of these minerals. The results showed that location has a significant effect both on the proximate composition and mineral contents of False Mopane seeds.

Energy is a cornerstone and strategic tool to meet basic human needs and address many global development challenges. However, ensuring energy supply while limiting energy's contribution to environmental change is a major challenge confronting the energy sector in many developing countries. The challenge is more severe in Sub-Saharan Africa, where about 900 million people still rely on biomass fuels for cooking. Cooking with biomass might not be a problem by itself. Instead, it is the inability to use biomass energy resources sustainably. Improving the opportunities for modern and sustainable energy use is, thus, an essential prerequisite to enhancing the livelihoods of the poor. This study examines the determinants of household energy choice in the Semien Mountains National Park and adjacent districts in Northwest Ethiopia. A survey of 420 randomly selected households was administered using a semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and a multivariate probit model were employed to analyze the data. Results showed that households' energy utilization pattern is skewed towards biomass fuels, particularly fuelwood (87%), while only a few households use charcoal (32%) and electricity (17%) for domestic chores. The study also shows that the majority (87%) of households collect all of their energy sources themselves, while 13% purchase from the market. In addition, the results show that about 77% of households perceived that fuelwood availability had decreased over time owing to deforestation. Estimates of the multivariate probit model showed that a mix of factors, including age, gender, household size, education, income, access to electricity, off-farm activities, access to market, distance to forest, and housing type, determine household cooking energy choice and the extent of dependency on it. Thus, the findings proved that local communities prefer fuel stacking rather than ascending the energy ladder. Based on the results, the study recommended that the local community be encouraged to use biomass fuels in a more environmentally friendly way and use sustainable and affordable modern energy sources.

Forests provide multiple ecosystem services ranging from local livelihoods and socio-economic benefits to global ecological services. Despite these benefits, human activities have put immense strain on forest resources, resulting in forest degradation, impoverishment of the environment, and loss of livelihoods. Hence, monitoring forest cover change and identifying its drivers are essential for developing sustainable forest management strategies that restore forest resources and ecosystem services. This study examined the trends of forest cover changes and its drivers in and around the Semien Mountains National Park, Northwest Ethiopia, from 1984 to 2020. Data from Landsat satellite images of 1984, 1996, 2008, and 2020 were used for forest cover mapping and quantifying the changes using remote sensing techniques. A household survey and key informant interviews were also used to identify the drivers of forest cover change. Results showed an overall decline in forest cover and grasslands while cultivated lands, bare lands and built-up areas have registered gains in the study area. The percentage area under forests declined by about 31% (33,084 ha) over the past 36 years. This loss translates to an annual average forest loss of about 1.02% (919 ha). Conversely, cultivated land, bare land, and built-up areas have experienced an increase of about 159% (33,387 ha), 220% (10,121 ha), and 366% (6356 ha), respectively, over the last 36 years. Analysis of the 36-year change detection matrix revealed that about 62% of the study area experienced a transition, of which 21% and 41% were attributable to net change and swap change, respectively. The observed reduction in forest cover was driven by agricultural expansion, population growth, growing demand for fuelwood, livestock pressure, and forest fires. Such drastic changes in forest cover have a detrimental impact on the community’s well-being, biodiversity, climate, and the availability of forest ecosystem services. Thus, the study recommends concerted efforts by stakeholders to develop participatory forest management and public awareness that consider the co-existence of nature conservation and sustainable livelihoods.

A marketing channel is a marketing process that performs several functions by bridging the gap between production and consumption. The analysis of marketing channels provides a systematic knowledge of the flow of goods or services from their production areas to the final market or end-users. The information on eucalypt products’ trade in the study area and the country is vacant prior to this study and it will fill the research gap in this regard. The specific objectives were to assess the trend of eucalypt trade and to examine its contribution to the construction industry in rural areas and urban centers. The study employed the purposive sampling method. The main reason for selecting this sampling method is to select well-experienced eucalypt traders and to avoid the inclusion of non-eucalypt tree farmers and to keep the validity of the representative samples (to cover large villages) Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and critical; observations are the major tools of data collection. The result shows that eucalypt products' trade (marketing channel) is accelerating in the study area due to two reasons. Firstly, attractive markets demand due to booming constriction in urban centers within and out of the study area. Secondly, asbestos and furniture factories which are found mainly in Addis Ababa are the next destinations. These destinations particularly those located out of the study area purchase products from the third suppliers (their adjacent eucalypt traders). Hence the first suppliers (farmers) sell to the second suppliers (local towns' eucalypt traders) and finally, these agents sell to the third suppliers (major towns' eucalypt traders). Eucalypt products are one of the sources of tax revenue to the Zone next to chat. The tax stations found in various parts of the woredas are busy mainly in controlling and taxing these two products. Farmers benefited significantly by selling poles of various stages to urban–rural areas and centers. To sustain the market facility and thereby benefits from eucalypt trade, eucalypt-related factories should be established in the areas. Households have to direct sales to the end-users to avoid unnecessary price deflation by middlemen.