The gopher tortoise robber fly, Machimus polyphemi Bullington and Beck (Diptera: Asilidae), is one of 12 species of obligate invertebrate commensals that inhabit burrows excavated by the gopher tortoise (Go-pherus polyphemus Daudin), a medium-large terrestrial turtle native to the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States. Described in 1991, the ecology and distribution of M. polyphemi remains poorly known. From 2019–2025, using a simple method we developed to flush flies from their resident burrows, we detected M. polyphemi at 43 sites in four states, including the first records for Alabama and South Carolina. These data, combined with historic records and community scientist website observations, show that M. polyphemi is more widely distributed than previously thought and essentially a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) eco-system endemic. The majority of sites where M. polyphemi has been documented are sandhill communities, including grossly disturbed examples of this habitat type. We provide size data for adult M. polyphemi, sum-marize the species’ natural history, and discuss the conservation status of this fascinating insect.

Understanding phylogeographic structure is a key step in examining the processes related to lineage divergence and speciation. It is often expected that wide-ranging taxa will be composed of deeply divergent lineages and that codistributed species will have similar population genetic structure. Within the southeastern coastal plain of North America, a biodiversity hotspot, the evolutionary processes that have led to the accumulation of diversity are underexplored. Several process within this region could be responsible for species diversification, including past changes in climate, fluctuating sea levels, and the formation of river systems. However, it is also possible that a pattern of isolation-by-distance can explain population genetic structure found in widely distributed species, which can serve as a null hypothesis for observed genetic structure. We generate a reduced representation genomic dataset with population level sampling for two sister species of snakes endemic to the southeastern coastal plain, the mudsnakes and rainbow snakes (Farancia abacura and F. erytrogramma, respectively). With these data we find a strong signal of population divergence in F. abacura, while isolation-by-distance alone explains genetic divergence in F. erytrogramma. We also identify several genomic regions associated with environmental variation that may be key to local adaptation. Lastly, we find that the best fit demographic model includes gene flow during the initial divergence of these two species. This model also suggests that there is current unidirectional gene flow from the eastern F. abacura lineage into F. erytrogramma. However, the two F. abacura lineages appear to be reproductively isolated. We suggest further comparative phylogeographic work to understand the full suite of evolutionary processes driving diversification and endemism in the southeastern coastal plain.

Macrochelys suwanniensis (Suwannee Alligator Snapping Turtle) is restricted to the Suwannee River drainage in Florida and Georgia. Over the last century, there have been scattered reports in the published and gray literature of M. suwanniensis sightings from the Okefenokee Swamp. This large wetland straddles the Georgia-Florida border and serves as the headwaters of the Suwannee River. Here, we discuss historic records of M. suwanniensis within the Okefenokee Swamp, provide details of recent sightings (2000-2021), including an extension of the known distribution to the northern portion of the swamp, and discuss the conservation and management implications of these observations.

With the conservation status of Macrochelys (alligator snapping turtles) being examined at the national level, our objective was to compile categorical data on threats from anthropogenic interactions. We included information from (1) author-collected anecdotes on human-turtle interactions and (2) radiographs to assess the prevalence of ingested fishing hooks. We placed 173 interactions involving 192 incidents into 9 IUCN threat categories and found bycatch involving fish hooks to be 4 times more numerous than the second-most numerous threat, turtle persecution. Fishing bycatch resulted in a high proportion of turtle mortalities (39%), and bycatch incidents in several cases preceded the highest-mortality threat (53%), persecution of individuals involving shooting or blunt trauma. We recommend fishing bycatch-mitigation measures and educational efforts to help conserve Macrochelys.

With populations declining across their geographic range, the spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) is currently a species of conservation concern. Though broadly distributed, the species is particularly enigmatic at its southern periphery, and many aspects of its ecology and population biology in this portion of the range have either just recently been described or are currently unknown. One of the current knowledge gaps is a robust assessment of the population genetics of the southern populations. We collected tissue samples from 204 spotted turtles from 5 sites across South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida and used 11 microsatellite loci to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure in these populations. We found that southern populations exhibited low, but significant, population differentiation (mean F-ST = 0.062) and each site clustered as its own genetic group. Genetic diversity across sites was comparable to estimates reported for northern populations. Net effective population sizes were generally robust and no populations showed indication of recent bottlenecks. Our results suggest that populations inhabiting relatively intact environments do not appear to face immediate threats from past loss of genetic diversity. However, continued monitoring, both demographic and genetic, of this longlived species is an important management goal to insure that continued global changes do not threaten population viability.

The Mimic Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus mimicus) is endemic to the Coastal Plain of the southeastern U.S. To assess its current status and distribution, we compiled 84 historical (pre-2000) and 45 recent (2000-2022) records by searching museum collections, databases, and the literature. We conducted field visits to 38 recent and 40 historical Mimic Glass Lizard sites to evaluate habitat type and condition. Most records are from opencanopied, hydric-mesic, fire-managed Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) habitats with grassy ground cover, including mesic and wet pine flatwoods (61 sites, 78.2%), wet prairie (13 sites, 16.6%), and seepage slope (five sites, 6.4%) communities. The range of the species is now highly fragmented, with recent records restricted to conservation lands in the Florida Panhandle (n = 4) and adjacent southern Alabama (n = 1), and near the coast in southeastern North Carolina (n = 2). Specimens are seldom collected in the field but have been found on roads and in funnel traps along drift fences. We summarized size data, survey methods, and activity of this poorly known species. Given the evidence of range-wide population declines, few recent records, and few known sites for Mimic Glass Lizards, we recommend immediate conservation attention by state and federal agencies, including a species status review for listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Alligator snapping turtles (genus Macrochelys) are the largest freshwater turtles in North America. Despite strong interest in their conservation, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of their natural history, including behaviors associated with terrestrial activity. We reviewed the literature and solicited unpublished observations of terrestrial movements of these highly aquatic turtles. We compiled 206 observations of terrestrial activity from 9 states. The majority of observations were associated with nesting behavior. Observations expanded our knowledge regarding the spatial extent and timing of terrestrial movements and the nesting season. In addition, we compiled observations of terrestrially foraging animals, as well as males and juveniles traveling overland and crossing roads. Collectively, this information clarifies the extent of terrestrial movement by Macrochelys, behaviors that should be considered in conservation plans.

We inventoried the robber fly (Family Asilidae) fauna of 2 distinct Pinus palustris (Longleaf Pine) habitat types (mesic pine flatwoods, xeric sandhills) on a large, fire-managed landscape (Fort Stewart) located in the Coastal Plain of southeastern Georgia. We conducted aerial-net and sweep-net surveys at 30 sites on 111 dates from October 2020 to November 2022. We also sampled hardwood and mixed pine-hardwood communities. We collected a total of 380 robber flies comprising 25 genera and 62 species. We recorded 47 species from Longleaf Pine habitats, with 42 species collected from xeric Longleaf Pine sandhills and 20 species from mesic Longleaf Pine flatwoods. Thirty-two species were found in hardwood habitats. Machimus polyphemi, a poorly known obligate commensal of Gopherus polyphemus (Gopher Tortoise) burrows, was found at 5 sites. Two species that we documented from xeric Longleaf Pine sandhills, Machimus blantoni and Efferia slossonae, represent the first state records for Georgia. An Echthodopa cf. formosa population found in mesic pine flatwoods represents a significant range extension. Also, we report Stichopogon abdominalis from Georgia for the first time.

Reintroduction of species at sites where populations have been extirpated has become a common technique in wildlife conservation. To track progress towards reintroduction success, effective postrelease monitoring is needed to document vital rates of individuals and the corresponding impact on population trajectories. We assessed growth and body size in Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi) using a data set from multiple projects across the species' distribution, including free-ranging wild snakes, snakes reared in captive-breeding programs, and snakes released at two reintroduction sites. We used these data to fit a von Bertalanffy growth model in a Bayesian framework to quantify differences in growth among three broad categories of snakes (wild, captive, and reintroduced), while accounting for measurement error across various projects. We also compared changes in body mass of captive-born individuals from four captive rearing facilities. Asymptotic snout-vent length across all groups was 185 cm (95% credible interval = 177-194 cm) for males and 157 cm (95% credible interval = 153-161 cm) for females. Reintroduced snakes had a higher growth coefficient than either captive or wild snakes (e.g., captive females = 1.20 [1.06-1.35] d(-1); wild females = 1.22 [0.95-1.49] d(-1); reintroduced females = 1.62 [1.21-2.05] d(-1)), indicating that current captive-breeding and rearing efforts for indigo snakes produce similar or faster growth trends compared to wild populations. Furthermore, daily changes in juvenile body weight relative to body size were similar in three of the four captive rearing facilities (mean for females at Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation = 0.57 [0.48-0.65]; Zoo Atlanta = 0.55 [0.37-0.72]; Welaka National Fish Hatchery = 0.55, [0.36-0.73]; Auburn University = 0.39 [0.21-0.58]). Long-term project success for indigo snake reintroductions will depend on continuing to implement best practices in an adaptive management framework.

Little is known about the nesting habits of Drymarchon couperi (Eastern Indigo Snake), a federally threatened species native to the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States. Here, we describe locations of nest sites based on reports in the literature and from our field observations of putative nests and hatched eggshells. All wild nest sites (n = 7) known for the species (i.e., excluding those from translocated and/or captive-bred snakes) have been found in xeric sandhill habitats in southern Georgia and all have been associated with Gopherus polyphemus (Gopher Tortoise) burrows, including in the sand of burrow aprons. To protect snake nests, buffers around tortoise burrows are highly recommended during all habitat management activities (e.g., selective thinning, Pinus palustris [Longleaf Pine] restoration).

We conducted a 14-year mark-recapture study of a population of Drymarchon couperi (Eastern Indigo Snake) inhabiting an unusual geologic region (Altamaha Grit) embedded within the Vidalia Uplands Physiographic Province of southeastern Georgia. Here, we documented regular cool-season use of refuges (ground holes, crevices) associated with aboveground sandstone outcrops. Several discrete rock outcrop sites were used throughout our study period, with individual snakes often returning to the same rock dens in successive years. We describe these habitats and discuss the significance of this discovery.

Abstract - During the course of surveys for freshwater amphibians/reptiles in the Coastal Plain of southeastern Georgia and northern Florida, we documented parasitism of the Amphiuma means (Two-toed Amphiuma) by the leech Macrobdella ditetra (Family Macrobdellidae). We observed this leech on Two-toed Amphiumas at 4 different wetland sites, with 1–3 individual M. ditetra present on 6 of 16 (37.5%) Two-toed Amphiumas captured via aquatic trapping. Leeches were not found on Siren lacertina (Greater Siren; n = 10), a second large, eel-like salamander inhabiting some of the same wetlands. We did not document Philobdella floridana, a second macrobdellid leech species often found syntopically with M. ditetra, feeding on the Two-toed Amphiuma.

The Suwannee alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys suwanniensis) was first described in 2014. The species is thought to occur in blackwater and spring-fed streams of sufficient size throughout the Suwannee River drainage, but we have limited detailed information regarding its range. To clarify the distribution of M. suwanniensis, we compiled 111 museum, 16 literature, and 40 other credible records and trapped streams throughout the Suwannee drainage in Georgia and Florida, plus 8 streams in the Big Bend region of Florida (total of 1893 trap nights). We documented the first records from the Willacoochee River and Okapilco, Piscola, Warrior, Jones, and Toms creeks in Georgia and from Rocky and Olustee creeks in Florida. Relative abundance based on catch per unit effort (CPUE) varied among streams (0.00-0.50) and sections of the same stream. Macrochelys suwanniensis is apparently scarce in the Okefenokee Swamp and in the Suwannee River upstream of White Springs, Florida (none trapped), but it occurs in small blackwater tributaries in this section of the river in both states. In the Suwannee River between White Springs and the estuary, we had a mean CPUE of 0.25, and the highest trapping success in Florida was in downstream reaches of the Suwannee River and in its major tributaries, the Santa Fe and New rivers. The species is widely distributed in Georgia, but relative abundance in most streams appears lower than in Florida. In Georgia, we had the highest trapping success in the Alapaha drainage and in sections of the Little River and Okapilco Creek in the Withlacoochee drainage. In Florida, we failed to trap Macrochelys in the purported distribution gap between the Suwannee and Ochlockonee drainages and in the Wacasassa River to the south, indicating that this species is restricted to the Suwannee drainage.

The ecology of many ectotherms depends heavily on their ability to navigate the surrounding thermal environment in a manner that maintains body temperature (Tb) within or near some optimal temperature range at least some of the time. From April–December 2016, we measured shell temperatures (Ts) and water temperatures (Tw) in two Spotted Turtle (Clemmys guttata) populations in southeastern Georgia using iButton temperature loggers. We attached radio transmitters and iButtons to the carapace of adult Spotted Turtles (n = 18 and 11 in each population, respectively) in early spring. Temperature loggers recorded a Ts measurement every 90 minutes (accuracy = 0.5°C), and we restricted our analyses to temperatures recorded between sunrise and sunset. Monthly mean Ts ranged from 12.3±3.4 to 27.1±2.7°C (SD), and seasonal variation accounted for a majority of the observed variation in temperatures. We found a strong positive correlation between weekly mean Ts and weekly mean Tw at one site that remained flooded throughout the study (P < 0.0001, R2 = 0.99). Tw could not be measured at the other site because it dried completely early in the study. Spotted Turtles did occasionally (<5% of total temperature observations) bask to raise Ts above that of the surrounding Tw. Gravid females achieved significantly higher daily maximum temperatures (26.2°C) than males (24.5°C) during the four weeks surrounding egg development (P = 0.043). In general, Spotted Turtles at the southern end of their range appear to spend a majority of their time conforming to environmental temperatures that often fall within the preferred range for the species.

Abstract - Two species of purseweb spiders, Sphodros abboti (Blue Purseweb Spider) and S. rufipes (Red-legged Purseweb Spider), are known to occur in northern Florida and southern Georgia, and a third, S. atlanticus (Atlantic Purseweb Spider), has been recorded from northeastern Georgia. Their distributions have not been well defined, and records are sparse for S. rufipes and S. atlanticus. We conducted visual surveys for the distinctive tubular webs of these spiders in a variety of forest types. We report 141 new locality records for S. abboti, including 19 new county records in Florida and 5 in Georgia; 80 new locality records for S. rufipes, including 13 new county records in Florida, 34 in Georgia, and 1 in Alabama; and 3 new locality records for S. atlanticus, including 2 new county records for Georgia. We provide additional information on reproductive biology and habitat use.

Two species of purseweb spiders. Sphodros abboti (Blue Purseweb Spider) and S. rufipes (Red-legged Purseweb Spider), are known to occur in northern Florida and southern Georgia, and a third, S. atlanticus (Atlantic Purseweb Spider), has been recorded from northeastern Georgia. Their distributions have not been well defined, and records are sparse for S. rufipes and S. atlanticus. We conducted visual surveys for the distinctive tubular webs of these spiders in a variety of forest types. We report 141 new locality records for S. abboti, including 19 new county records in Florida and 5 in Georgia . , 80 new locality records for S. rufipes, including 13 new county records in Florida, 34 in Georgia, and 1 in Alabama; and 3 new locality records for S. atlanticus, including 2 new county records for Georgia. We provide additional information on reproductive biology and habitat use.

Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and threatens snake health worldwide. It has been documented throughout the eastern United States and severe cases have recently been reported in Georgia, USA. To evaluate disease distribution and prevalence in this state, 786 free-ranging snakes were examined for skin lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis and swabbed to detect O. ophiodiicola DNA using qPCR. Sampled snakes represented 34 species and 4 families; 27.5% had skin lesions, 13.3% were positive for O. ophiodiicola DNA, and 77.8% of the qPCR positive individuals had skin lesions. This is the first report of O. ophiodiicola in five of the 22 species that were qPCR positive. Multinomial logistic regression modeling indicated that Drymarchon couperi had a higher relative risk of apparent ophidiomycosis (lesions present and qPCR positive), and the best models predicting qPCR result and ophidiomycosis category included individual factors and excluded temporal and spatial factors. Phylogeny-based bipartite network analysis showed that Nerodia erythrogaster , Nerodia taxispilota , and D. couperi had the highest prevalence of apparent ophidiomycosis; this category was more prevalent in the subfamily Colubrinae and less prevalent in Natricinae. These results provide important information about ophidiomycosis epidemiology, which has implications for snake conservation.

The status and distribution of many mygalomorph spider species is poorly known because of their cryptic lifestyles and specific habitat requirements. In 2018, we conducted surveys to better determine the ranges of the mygalomorph spiders Antrodiaetus unicolor (a folding door spider), Cyclocosmia torreva (Torreya Trap-door Spider), and Alyrmekiaphila spp. (wafer-lid spiders) in the Coastal Plain in Georgia. Our surveys focused on oak-beech-magnolia forests associated with north-facing bluffs and ravines. We documented one or more of these mygalomorph spiders at 17 Coastal Plain sites, finding A. unicolor at 7 sites, C. torreva at 5 sites, M. torreva at 3 sites, and an undetermined Alyrinekiaphi/a species at 12 sites. Our collections include the first C. torreya records for the Atlantic Coastal Plain.