Adolescence and emerging adulthood are important developmental periods for extending prosocial behaviors to broader societal contexts, which is influenced by widespread access to online environments. This study examined online emotional support and online activism in 998 adolescents and young adults (ages 12–24; 59% female) using an extended version of the Online Prosocial Behavior Scale (OPBS-E). First, we established the scale's convergent validity with offline prosocial behaviors and demonstrated reliability across two time points, separated by 6 months. Results showed that online emotional support was positively correlated with economic game donations to friends, while online activism was linked to higher compulsive social media use. Second, this study revealed distinct age and gender patterns for online emotional support and activism. Overall, females showed more online emotional support than males, whereas males showed more online activism. Age patterns revealed that online emotional support was higher for females than males in younger adolescence and young adulthood, but males showed similar levels of online emotional support as females in the late teenage years. Furthermore, younger adolescents demonstrated higher levels of online activism with decreasing trends into emerging adulthood, independent of gender. This study shows diverse manifestations and developmental patterns for online prosocial behaviors and attitudes. It underscores the importance of considering the online environment in understanding adolescents' and young adults’ prosocial development.

There are marked sex differences in the prevalence and expression of neurodiverse conditions, including autism and ADHD. Yet, it is unclear how sex-related mechanisms may affect differences in the expression of symptoms. In the present study, we examine whether previously reported greater male than female variability in neuroanatomy extends to brain development and if X-linked mechanisms are involved, using twin modeling. We further tested whether these observed patterns may be behavioral relevant and linked to symptoms of autism and ADHD. The present study included data from the L-CID study with up to three longitudinal imaging scans from 990 same-sex twin pairs (56% monozygotic, 7-14 yo, 49% females). We replicated greater male than female variability in both cross-sectional and longitudinal data, which was most pronounced for cortical surface area. In line with our hypothesis, twin modeling results support a significant role of X-chromosome expression related to sex differences in neuroanatomical variation. In addition, normative modeling analysis showed that, as predicted, deviations in brain anatomy at both upper and lower ends of the distribution were associated with symptoms of neurodiversity. These findings support a significant and understudied role of the X-chromosome in sex differences in the brain and the need to move beyond binary models to better understand sex-linked vulnerability and protective mechanisms in mental health.

The female brain undergoes substantial reorganization during major hormonal transitions, yet whether puberty, pregnancy, and menopause engage shared or distinct neuroplastic mechanisms remains unknown. We conducted the first study comparing longitudinal structural brain changes across all three transitions using identical analytical methods (n=1292), with stable control groups to isolate transition-specific effects. Both pubertal girls transitioning through menarche and women transitioning to motherhood showed cortical gray matter reductions across the majority of examined regions, with cross-cohort comparisons confirming broad mostly convergence but also regional divergence across the cortex. The menopausal transition showed a fundamental divergence from both puberty and pregnancy, as women transitioning through menopause showed no accelerated volumetric loss, while stable pre- and postmenopausal control groups did. These findings demonstrate that puberty and pregnancy share a broadly convergent signature of cortical remodeling, while menopause represents a qualitatively distinct neuroplastic state defined by the absence rather than acceleration of volumetric change.

We have shown that pregnancy alters brain structure and brain activity, yet its effects on neural dynamics are unknown. This is the first study to investigate the effects of becoming a mother on neural variability, a measure of moment-to-moment fluctuations in brain activity. Longitudinal resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data were analyzed of 110 women participating in a prospective pre-conception study, including first-time mothers, second-time mothers and nulliparous control women. Significant differences were observed when comparing pre-to-post pregnancy variability changes in first-time mothers and second-time mothers to those in control women. Control women exhibited widespread reductions in neural variability across all neural networks over time, a pattern that may reflect normative aging and test-retest effects. In contrast, both first-time and second-time mothers showed relative stability in neural variability, diverging from the trajectory observed in controls. Notably, higher neural variability was associated with younger age across all groups, and age was positively associated with changes in attention and frontoparietal networks in first-time mothers. These findings show that pregnancy renders changes in the temporal dynamics of brain activity. Furthermore, becoming a mother alters the trajectory of reductions in neural variability typical for repeated scanning sessions and aging, suggesting compensatory neural adaptations.

Subjective experiences of well-being are multifaceted in nature, but the behavioral and neural correlates of subdomains of well-being are not yet well understood. Prior neuroimaging studies have primarily focused on single aspects of well-being (e.g., happiness). In the present study, we differentiated between five domains of well-being based on prior research (Green, van de Groep, et al., 2023): (a) family relationships; (b) dealing with stress; (c) self-confidence; (d) having impact, purpose, and meaning; and (e) feeling loved, appreciated, and respected. Young adults (age range = 20-25 years; n = 34) completed a self-evaluation functional magnetic resonance imaging task addressing the applicability of the items to the self on a scale of 1 to 4, followed by whether this item addressed a desire for change on a scale of 1 to 4. Behavioral ratings showed that young adults were least positive about dealing with stress and reported the highest degree of desired change for this domain. Higher positivity ratings in all five domains of current well-being were negatively associated with burnout symptoms. More burnout symptoms were associated with higher desire for future changes in the impact, confidence, and loved conditions. More depressive symptoms were associated with higher desire for future changes in all domains, except for confidence. Neural results showed increased activity in the precuneus for items addressing "positive family relations" and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for items addressing "dealing with stress," relative to the other domains, which did not result in distinct neural patterns. Together, these findings highlight the importance of assessing various components of well-being, which show distinct behavioral and neural patterns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Task-related functional MRI (fMRI) studies need to be properly powered with an adequate sample size to reliably detect effects of interest. But for most fMRI studies, it is not straightforward to determine a proper sample size using power calculations based on published effect sizes. Here, we present an alternative approach of sample size estimation with empirical Bayesian updating. First, this method provides an estimate of the required sample size using existing data from a similar task and similar region of interest. Using this estimate researchers can plan their research project, and report empirically determined sample size estimations in their research proposal or pre-registration. Second, researchers can expand the sample size estimations with new data. We illustrate this approach using four existing fMRI data sets where Cohen’s d is the effect size of interest for the hemodynamic response in the task condition of interest versus a control condition, and where a Pearson correlation between task effect and age is the covariate of interest. We show that sample sizes to reliably detect effects differ between various tasks and regions of interest. We provide an R package to allow researchers to use Bayesian updating with other task-related fMRI studies.

What factors contribute to the increased risk of antisocial behavior in youth, and more importantly, what explains why most of them desist when they grow older? In the Growing Up Together in Society (GUTS) research program, we aim to answer these vital questions from a biopsychosocial perspective in a longitudinal cohort study. The GUTSGO cohort specifically focuses on youth at risk who have difficulties in pursuing personal and societal goals. The main objective of this study is to explore why, even with initial high-risk factors, most adolescents do not continue to display antisocial behavior. We will examine the social, contextual, biological, and behavioral mechanisms involved in the persistence or desistance of antisocial behavior, with main focus on the role of self-regulation, empathy and trust. We aim to assess the impact on adolescents’ functioning in various societal contexts, including educational settings, social relationships, and adherence to societal norms. In this paper, we describe in detail the design of this study, the included population, the determinants, intermediate neurocognitive measures, and outcomes. Furthermore, we provide a detailed description of the procedures for inclusion, informed consent, recruitment, and our collaboration with network partners.

INTRODUCTION:Global societal challenges can negatively impact youths' mental health, but also be transformed into opportunities to have a positive impact. However, little is known about harnessing youths' need to contribute to societal challenges. METHODS:We conducted a naturalistic experiment with 139 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 14.68, SDage = 0.99, range = 12-17, 60.4% female). Adolescents in the experimental group participated in a societal challenge program, consisting of a workshop and impact challenge. Both the experimental and control group answered questionnaires about the need and perceived opportunities to contribute, feelings of vigor/depression, and novelty seeking at four time points (T1 = pretest, T2 = after the workshops, T3 = after the impact challenge, T4 = a 2.5-month follow-up). RESULTS:There was an overall disbalance between adolescents' need to contribute and their perceived opportunities to make valuable contributions before the challenge program. This disbalance was enlarged for adolescents who were more sensitive to social rewards. After the workshops and impact challenge, the disbalance was smaller in the experimental group compared to the control group, and adolescents who participated with a higher challenge intensity, showed a higher need to contribute at T3. These differences were no longer observed at T4. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings provide initial evidence for the notion that some adolescents may be more inclined to become "agents of change" than others. By demonstrating that adolescents have a high need to contribute to societal challenges, this study provides important building blocks for research on adolescent mental health in a changing world.

In an eight-wave longitudinal online experiment, we test pre-registered hypotheses on adolescents’ giving behavior during and after the COVID-19 pandemic employing a Pandemic Dictator Game (PDG). Participants (n = 898) showed higher generosity towards pandemic- related targets (medical doctors, individuals with a poor immune system and COVID-19 patients) than to a friend and an unknown peer, which was more marked among younger and female participants. As the pandemic progressed, this generosity diminished; the level of giving to doctors and individuals with a poor immune system dropped to a similar level as giving to a friend, while that to COVID-19 patients dropped below that of a friend. Additionally, participants were more generous to vaccinated others than to unvaccinated others, unless they were unvaccinated themselves. Our findings based on an online experiment format PDG imply strong contextual adaptability of adolescents’ generosity. Future research using a real-life PDG can further establish their external validity.

This study examines the distinct developmental trajectories of prosocial and rebellious behaviors in adolescence. Using data from an accelerated three-wave project (2018-2022) among adolescents aged 9-22 years (N = 142, 63% female, middle-high SES, white European descent), trajectories of prosocial actions toward friends and peers, prosocial tendencies across multiple situations, giving to charities, and general social value orientation were examined. By examining age-, puberty-, and hormonal-related trajectories, the study demonstrates increases in prosocial behaviors to friends and peers, dire and compliant behavior, and charitable giving, which were more strongly explained by pubertal maturation than age. Public prosocial behavior decreased with age. The results confirm the multidimensionality of prosocial behavior, demonstrate correlations with rebelliousness, and show that prosocial behavior is context-dependent.

Observational learning is essential for the acquisition of new behavior in educational practices and daily life and serves as an important mechanism for human cognitive and social-emotional development. However, we know little about its underlying neurocomputational mechanisms from a developmental perspective. In this study we used model-based fMRI to investigate differences in observational learning and individual learning between children and younger adults. Prediction errors (PE), the difference between experienced and predicted outcomes, related positively to striatal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex activation during individual learning and showed no age-related differences. PE-related activation during observational learning was more pronounced when outcomes were worse than predicted. Particularly, negative PE-coding in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex was stronger in adults compared to children and was associated with improved observational learning in children and adults. The current findings pave the way to better understand observational learning challenges across development and educational settings.

Prior studies have reported associations between socioeconomic disadvantage, brain structure and mental health outcomes, but the timing of these relations is not well understood. Using prospective longitudinal data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), this preregistered study examined whether socioeconomic disadvantage related differentially to depressive symptoms (n=3012-3530) and cortical and subcortical structures (n=460-733) in emerging adults, depending on the timing of exposure to socioeconomic disadvantage. Family income in early childhood and own income measured concurrently were both significantly related to depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Similar results were observed for perceived financial strain. In contrast, only family income in early childhood was associated with brain structure in emerging adulthood, with positive associations with intracranial volume and total and regional cortical surface area. The findings suggest that both objective and subjective aspects of one’s financial standing throughout development relate to depressive symptoms in adulthood, but that specifically early life family income is related to brain structural features in emerging adulthood. This suggests that associations between socioeconomic disadvantage and brain structure originate early in neurodevelopment, highlighting the role of timing of socioeconomic disadvantage.

De mentale gezondheid van jongeren staat onder grote druk, zoals blijkt uit diverse cijfers enrapporten. Ondanks de inspanningen op scholen om dit te verbeteren, blijft de impactbeperkt. Met Healthy Start willen we dit probleem transdisciplinair aanpakken, door middelvan samenwerking met alle betrokkenen. Door jongeren, hun directe omgeving enbeleidsmakers te betrekken willen we samen oplossingen zoeken die alle perspectievenmeenemen. Het doel is om een wetenschappelijk onderbouwd aanbod te ontwikkelen datjongeren helpt zich gezien, gehoord en ondersteund te voelen in hun mentale welzijn. Driespeerpunten van Healthy Start worden specifiek toegelicht.

Adolescents are often described as notorious risk-takers. However, adolescents do not always take risks and risk-taking may vary across risk-taking domains. Furthermore, there are large individual differences. Certain clinical groups, such as adolescents with ADHD, may be more likely to take risks. In two studies we examined these domain-specific and individual differences using the adolescent Domain-Specific Risk-Taking (DOSPERT)-questionnaire, which assesses adolescents’ self-reported risk-taking likelihood, perceptions of risk, and perceptions of benefits (‘returns’). Furthermore, we examined how risk-taking likelihood is informed by risk- and benefit-perceptions, i.e., ‘risk-return’ weighing. In a community-sample study (N=361, 12-25 years), we tested the domain-specificity across age, and observed a peak in risk-taking likelihood in late adolescence in the Health-Safety domain only. Perceived benefits were heightened, and perceived risks attenuated, in mid-to-late adolescence for Health-Safety, Recreational, and Ethical risks. In a second study, we compared boys with ADHD (N=81) and controls (N=99; 12-20 years). Adolescents with ADHD rated higher risk-taking likelihoods for Social risks only. Risk-return models in both studies revealed that effects of perceived risks (Health-Safety) and benefits (Recreational) on risk-taking likelihood were most pronounced and varied across age. Together, adolescents’ risk-taking likelihood is impacted by risks and returns, age-related differences, and should be studied domain-specifically.

Adolescents growing up in the 21st century face novel challenges that affect today’s adolescents differently compared with previous generations. Adolescents’ prosocial values and social engagement can contribute in unique ways to combatting societal challenges. Participatory research provides tools to transform adolescents’ prosocial motivations into drivers for societal change.

Mood variability, the day-to-day fluctuation in mood, differs between individuals and develops during adolescence. Because adolescents show higher mood variability and average mood than children and adults, puberty might be a potential biological mechanism underlying this increase. The goal of this preregistered developmental study was to examine the neural and hormonal underpinnings of adolescent-specific within-person changes in mood variability, with a specific focus on testosterone, cortisol, pubertal status, and resting-state functional brain connectivity. Data from two longitudinal cohorts were used: the L-CID twin study (aged 7-13, N at the first timepoint = 258) and the accelerated Leiden Self-Concept study (SC; aged 11-21, N at the first timepoint = 138). In both studies resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data was collected, as well as daily mood. Additionally, in the SC study self-reported puberty testosterone and cortisol were collected. Random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPM) were used to study the within-person relations between these biological measures and mood variability and average mood. Mood variability and average mood peaked in adolescence and testosterone levels and self-reported puberty also showed an increase. Connectivity between prefrontal cortex (dlPFC and vmPFC) and subcortical regions (caudate, amygdala) decreased across development. Moreover, higher testosterone predicted average negative mood at the next time point, but not vice versa. Further, stronger vmPFC-amygdala functional connectivity predicted decreases in mood variability. Here, we show that brain connectivity during development is an important within-person biological mechanism of the development of mood in adolescents. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Mood variability peaks in adolescence. Within-person changes in testosterone predict within-person changes in mood. Within-person changes in vmPFC-amygdala connectivity predict within-person changes in mood variability.

Self-concept develops during adolescence, but little is known about self-concept in adolescents with autism. This behavioral neuroimaging study investigated (1) self-concept positivity across three domains (academic, physical appearance, and prosocial) and (2) from the perspective of self (direct self-concept) and the perceived perspective of peers (reflected self-concept) in 12- to 16-year-old adolescent males with ( n = 35) and without autism ( n = 34). These behavioral and neural measures of self-concept were additionally related to autism traits and alexithymia traits across groups. Results showed no general group differences, but more autism traits were related to less positive self-concept ratings in the physical appearance and prosocial domains. More autism traits were also associated with less similarity between direct and reflected prosocial self-concept ratings. Lower self-esteem was additionally explained by alexithymia, specifically the difficulty to identify ones feelings. Participants showed medial prefrontal cortex activation in response to evaluating self-traits in both groups. Region-of-interest analyses revealed that medial prefrontal cortex and right temporal–parietal junction activation were differentially related to alexithymia traits. Together, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of self-concept and self-esteem in adolescents with varying levels autism and alexithymia traits. Lay abstract Developing a positive view of the self is important for maintaining a good mental health, as feeling negative about the self increases the risk of developing internalizing symptoms such as feelings of depression and anxiety. Even though autistic individuals regularly struggle with these internalizing feelings, and both self-concept and internalizing feelings are known to develop during adolescence, there is a lack of studies investigating the development of positive self-concept and self-esteem in autistic adolescents. Here, we studied academic, physical, and prosocial self-concept as well as self-esteem in adolescent males with and without autism on both the behavioral and neural level. We additionally focused on similarities in one’s own and peers’ perspectives on the self, and we assessed a potential role of alexithymia (i.e. having trouble identifying and describing one’s feelings) in developing a more negative view of the self. Results showed that there were no group differences in self-esteem, self-concept, or underlying neural activation. This shows that autistic adolescent males use the same neural processes when they evaluate their traits. However, regardless of clinical diagnosis, a higher number of autism traits was related to a less positive physical and prosocial self-concept, whereas more difficulty identifying one’s feelings was related to lowered self-esteem and less activation in medial prefrontal cortex during self-evaluations. Therefore, in treatment of autistic adolescents with low self-esteem, it is important to take into account and possibly aim to improve alexithymic traits as well.