Beyond its well-known role in muscle contraction, the cytoskeletal component actin participates in many critical cellular processes. Globular actin polymerizes into thin, flexible filaments that assemble into dynamic higher order structures, such as bundles and networks. In addition to providing

Autophagy is the conserved eukaryotic mechanism by which cytoplasmic components such as macromolecular complexes, organelles, and cytosol are degraded in the lysosome or vacuole ([Reggiori and Klionsky, 2013][1]). Basal autophagy ensures that obsolete organelles and misfolded proteins are removed

Calcium (Ca2+) is a versatile second messenger that controls a range of cellular processes—from pollen tube growth to stress responses—by regulating the activity of various proteins. Although Ca2+ is present at millimolar concentrations in the cell wall and vacuole, a set of channels, pumps, and

In the decades since Agrobacterium tumefaciens was first used as a vector to deliver genetic material into plants ([Zambryski et al., 1983][1]), this powerful tool has provided important insights into the biological functions of countless gene products. However, this approach has its shortcomings;

Once viewed merely as inert packets of metabolic energy that are mobilized during postgerminative growth, lipid droplets (LDs) have emerged as dynamic organelles with important roles in processes ranging from stress responses to hormone signaling ([Pyc et al., 2017][1]). LDs consist of a core of

Although secondary cell walls represent the bulk of plant biomass, the mechanism by which cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin assemble into a functional three-dimensional matrix is unknown. Cortical microtubules are thought to guide cellulose deposition in the plasma membrane by defining the

Polycomb-group (PcG) proteins are part of an epigenetic memory system that regulates global gene expression throughout development in multicellular eukaryotes ([Butenko and Ohad, 2011][1]). Sophisticated mechanisms recruit high molecular weight complexes of PcG proteins to specific targets in the

Inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) is a by-product of many metabolic reactions, including those involved in sucrose, sugar nucleotide, and cellulose biosynthesis. Although PPi is an important phosphate donor and source of cellular energy, high levels of cytosolic PPi are toxic, disrupting the metabolic

Thousands of years of artificial selection have produced rice plants ( Oryza sativa ) that are vastly different from their wild progenitor species in terms of architecture, yield, and resilience. Most of the genetic changes linked to rice domestication involved genes encoding transcription factors.

As a biotrophic fungus, Ustilago maydis (maize smut fungus) relies on living plant tissues for sustenance. Once U. maydis cells of compatible mating types fuse on a leaf surface, they produce a dikaryotic filament with a specialized infection structure—the appressorium—that penetrates epidermal

Limiting shoot growth is an important survival strategy for plants during times of drought; smaller leaves mean that less water is lost through transpiration and more is retained in the soil. As drought stress restricts both cell division and expansion—processes that rely on specialized

Aphids are highly destructive insect pests; in addition to robbing plants of sugar-rich phloem sap, they carry viruses that can be deadly to the plant. To reach the phloem sap, aphids must penetrate the plasma membrane of sieve elements. Mature sieve elements, which are virtually empty, translocate

Folates are soluble B9 vitamins with important functions in all kingdoms of life—both in organisms that produce these vitamins de novo (fungi, plants, algae, and most microorganisms) and in those that do not (animals). As essential cofactors in one-carbon transfers, different folate species

Soon after dicots germinate, the hypocotyl arches into a hook-like structure that protects the shoot apical meristem as the seedling grows through the soil. Once the seedling emerges from the ground and senses light, the hypocotyl straightens. The asymmetric growth that results in apical hook

The mechanical properties of plant cell walls—determined largely by the orientation of cellulose fibers embedded in the wall ([Probine and Preston, 1961][1])—have a profound effect on plant growth and morphology. Being able to measure spatial variation in these properties would open many

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR)—a plant-wide heightened state of defense following localized exposure to a pathogen—is characterized by increased salicylic acid (SA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and elevated expression of pathogenesis-related genes. SAR depends on ENHANCED DISEASE

Aphids are highly destructive insect pests; in addition to robbing plants of sugar-rich phloem sap, they carry viruses that can be deadly to the plant. To reach the phloem sap, aphids must penetrate the plasma membrane of sieve elements. Mature sieve elements, which are virtually empty, translocate

Stamen primordia transform into slender filaments bearing pollen-laden anthers in a series of well-defined developmental steps ([Goldberg et al., 1993][1]; [Scott et al., 2004][2]). During anther stages 1-7, anther morphology is established, cell specification and differentiation occur, and

Auxin and brassinosteroid (BR) promote cell expansion through interdependent and synergistic pathways (reviewed in [Hardtke et al., 2007][1]). Although the biosynthetic pathways that produce these phytohormones have been characterized and the downstream response factors that trigger cell expansion

Polysaccharide-rich cell walls are a distinguishing feature of plants that influence many aspects of growth and development, including cell division. Whereas contractile rings pinch dividing cells into two daughter cells in other eukaryotes, newly built cell walls partition the products of plant