Anthropogenic activity is increasingly disturbing wildlife, leading to negative impacts on species welfare and conservation. Despite this, very few studies have investigated how the different components of anthropogenic activity (including visual, acoustic, or other components) differentially affect animals. Such studies are important to better understand what animals may perceive as aversive in order to improve, not only captive management and welfare, but also wild management. This study aimed to disentangle the impacts of the visual and acoustic components of two different anthropogenic stimuli (zoo visitors and construction activity) on the critically endangered pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor). We exposed 12 pair-housed pied tamarins at Jersey Zoo to either no stimuli (baseline), individual components (visual or acoustic stimuli only), or combinations of components (54 trials in total). We found that pied tamarins varied in their responses to the two different stimuli and to their different components, especially when presented in isolation. Visitor visual and visitor acoustic components presented in isolation led to increased vigilance. The combined presentation of visitor components weakened responses, indicating that simultaneous exposure to visual and auditory cues may provide more perceptual context to the primates. In contrast, construction noise caused a significant decrease in environmental engagement (indicated by decreased foraging and increased retreat behaviour). These findings emphasize the importance of understanding how animals respond to different sensory components of stimuli to improve captive management practices, enhance welfare, and ultimately help the conservation of endangered species.

Play in humans and other animals is widespread and intuitive to recognise. Creative, unstructured play is difficult to quantify, but games direct play towards a specific goal and have defined rules, mechanics and rewards. To date, games have been under-utilised in human and animal behavioural neuroscience. This review evaluates evidence that animals can play human games, including game-theory contests, tangible games, and video games. Animals can be trained to play various human games with cognitive capacities such as role adoption, rule-following and performance monitoring. Animals can make irrational gameplay decisions that jeopardise rewards and have salient emotional responses to winning and losing. Games can advance the field of behavioural neuroscience in several ways. Cognitive tasks can become more engaging and ecologically relevant by adding game elements, known as gamification. Games can be used to induce and measure more naturalistic emotional responses to the process of overcoming (progression/regression) and end state (winning/losing) of cognitive challenges. There is also scope to target specific cognitive skill deficiencies in captive animals using games. However, a recent rapid increase in computerised testing environments raises an important ethical question about the boundary between games and reality for animals.

Open science and big data approaches (i.e., approaches which enable the development of large and complex data sets) facilitate comparative analyses and thus more robust, evidence-based decision-making. Whilst there has been an increase in published research arising from zoological institutions over several decades, most research has arisen from small-scale case studies, often involving one or two zoos from a small geographical radius. Data from several zoos can be combined and compared retrospectively, but this is difficult when studies adopt different methods. The benefit of wider, simultaneous multi-institution research was recently demonstrated when researchers assessed the impact of zoo closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this paper, we introduce a new consortium initiative called ManyZoos, which aims to address the critical need for zoo science to expand even further geographically while incorporating additional institutions and disciplines. Like other "Many X" initiatives (e.g., ManyPrimates, ManyDogs), ManyZoos aims to foster more productive research collaborations between zoological collections and other animal collections, academia, government, and nongovernment organizations. In doing so, ManyZoos will address several current limitations of zoo research including small sample sizes and siloed expertise. ManyZoos embeds collaboration at every stage of research, from study conception to dissemination of results, producing large open data sets with transparent protocols. ManyZoos has the potential to lead to more robust, evidence-based decision-making for zoo animal management and conservation.

The ability to innovate implies flexible cognition, and is used as a broad metric of intelligence. Innovation in birds has been intensively studied in the larger and more taxonomically diverse Neognathae clade (particularly crows and parrots) and overlooked in the smaller and more ancestral Palaeognathae clade. The current study provides the first known evidence of technical innovation in palaeognath birds. We tested the ability of nine individuals of three species to move a hole towards a chamber to access a food reward. This problem was different to traditional innovation puzzle-boxes where an obstacle is moved away from a food chamber. Three emus and one rhea produced a wheel-turning innovation, moving the hole in the most efficient direction (closer to the nearest food item) in 90% of cases. One rhea dismantled the task twice by removing the central bolt, which we suggest is a second type of innovation, and it did not persist once they innovated the wheel turning solution. Ostriches did not innovate. We classify innovation in palaeognaths as low level/simplistic, relying on general exploration and asocial trial and error learning. Our research suggests that technical innovation may have evolved far earlier in birds than previously thought, and palaeognath birds are a compelling taxonomic group for further cognitive research.

The workshop will explore how digital enrichment, including touchscreen technology, may be used to conduct research into the cognitive capabilities of great and smaller apes, facilitate welfare and enrichment opportunities and support a range of multimodal inputs and outputs, associated with the screen and the environment.

Curiosity is a core driver for life-long learning, problem-solving and decision-making. In a broad sense, curiosity is defined as the intrinsically motivated acquisition of novel information. Despite a decades-long history of curiosity research and the earliest human theories arising from studies of laboratory rodents, curiosity has mainly been considered in two camps: 'linguistic human' and 'other'. This is despite psychology being heritable, and there are many continuities in cognitive capacities across the animal kingdom. Boundary-pushing cross-disciplinary debates on curiosity are lacking, and the relative exclusion of pre-linguistic infants and non-human animals has led to a scientific impasse which more broadly impedes the development of artificially intelligent systems modelled on curiosity in natural agents. In this review, we synthesize literature across multiple disciplines that have studied curiosity in non-verbal systems. By highlighting how similar findings have been produced across the separate disciplines of animal behaviour, developmental psychology, neuroscience, and computational cognition, we discuss how this can be used to advance our understanding of curiosity. We propose, for the first time, how features of curiosity could be quantified and therefore studied more operationally across systems: across different species, developmental stages, and natural or artificial agents.

Computer technology for animals is typically oriented toward isolated individuals, seldom attending to such group-living factors as accommodating differences between individuals. To address this shortcoming of research and practice, the authors designed and developed an audio-based system that lets lemurs in group accommodation voluntarily trigger audio via a novel device dubbed LemurLounge and listen to it on their own. This interactive system was deployed for 14 lemurs, of three species (black-and-white, brown, and ring-tailed), in their normal habitat. The device’s presence clearly influenced lemurs’ visits to the relevant portion of the enclosure. Alongside a general preference for audio over silence, assessment of individual- and species-level differences revealed significant differences at both levels, though no particular sound type (rainfall, traffic, either upbeat or relaxing music, or white noise) was favoured. The findings and design work highlight the need for customisable and adaptive computer technology for animals living in group settings, with important implications for lemurs and other primates, humans included.

To robustly study zoo animal cognition and provide effective enrichment, we must provide animals with carefully designed apparatus made from appropriate (safe, attractive, practical) materials. However, all too often, this design phase is overlooked or omitted from the literature. We evaluated how a troop of 12 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) explored a range of novel materials and whole foods during outdoor social testing. These items were not intended to test cognition or be enriching; rather we viewed them as the potential "building blocks" from which to build our future apparatus. Lemurs preferred to explore wooden surfaces, but had no preference for manipulanda made from different materials. Large amounts of metal and untreated wood should be avoided in the future; metal produced too much heat and glare, and wood was damaged by biting/chewing. Lemurs used one or two hands to explore manipulanda, and simple touching was more common than twisting or pulling. However, lemurs were most likely to explore by smell than touch or by mouth. Social testing preserved "normal" conditions for the lemurs, including natural food stealing and scrounging in high- and low-ranking individuals, respectively. Our findings culminated in the development of a static, low-level cognitive task apparatus, constructed from modular plastic units. We encourage other researchers to report how they develop cognitive and enrichment apparatuses and consider a similar preference-testing approach.

Endangered species have small, unsustainable population sizes that are geographically or genetically restricted. Ex-situ conservation programmes are therefore faced with the challenge of breeding sufficiently sized, genetically diverse populations earmarked for reintroduction that have the behavioural skills to survive and breed in the wild. Yet, maintaining historically beneficial behaviours may be insufficient, as research continues to suggest that certain cognitive-behavioural skills and flexibility are necessary to cope with human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC). This paper begins by reviewing interdisciplinary studies on the 'captivity effect' in laboratory, farmed, domesticated and feral vertebrates and finds that captivity imposes rapid yet often reversible changes to the brain, cognition and behaviour. However, research on this effect in ex-situ conservation sites is lacking. This paper reveals an apparent mismatch between ex-situ enrichment aims and the cognitive-behavioural skills possessed by animals currently coping with HIREC. After synthesizing literature across neuroscience, behavioural biology, comparative cognition and field conservation, it seems that ex-situ endangered species deemed for reintroduction may have better chances of coping with HIREC if their natural cognition and behavioural repertoires are actively preserved. Evaluating the effects of environmental challenges rather than captivity per se is recommended, in addition to using targeted cognitive enrichment.

The phenomenon of human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC) is a great challenge in the modern world that presents a threat to all species. Research on the effect of anthropogenic noise on free-living wildlife is increasing but the effect of anthropogenic noise on the behaviour and welfare of captive wildlife has received limited attention, even though captive settings are full of human activity and a wide range of sounds. Moreover, studies in captivity tend to classify noise subjectively by volume according to human hearing and as part of the overall 'visitor effect' rather than a stressor in its own right. Research on free-living wildlife suggests that anthropogenic noise can negatively impact foraging behaviour; similar impacts in captive species could have a detrimental effect on their health and welfare if animals cannot perform functional feeding behaviours and access adequate nutrition. In the current study, we designed a forage box experiment for captive pied tamarins, a Critically Endangered callitrichid primate species that is prone to poor physical health and breeding success in captivity. Ten pairs of tamarins housed at Jersey Zoo were provided with a forage box containing cryptic (hidden) prey items (waxworms). Using a within-subjects design, tamarins were provided access to the forage box in noise and non-noise conditions of anthropogenic noise (machinery used for gardening in the zoo). Both active (foraging with the hands) and observational (looking into the forage box) foraging were significantly less frequent in the presence of anthropogenic noise; however, there was no difference in the duration of these behaviours or in foraging success. Furthermore, the presence of anthropogenic noise did not significantly affect vigilance behaviour. We found no sex differences in the effect of noise, and our results suggest that the anthropogenic noise we tested was only a minimal distractor for tamarins. However, large individual differences in foraging suggest that other factors may have a larger impact on foraging than the anthropogenic noise used in this experiment. More research into how captive animals may respond to the presence of anthropogenic noise is needed.

Flow is an altered state of feeling ‘in the zone’ when fully absorbed in a challenge and is associated with positive affective state (feelings). Despite almost five decades of research, Flow has not yet been recognized in non- human animals, despite repeated suggestions from animal researchers it could exist. Recent advancements in behavioral and neurophysiological indicators of experience in humans and animals make it more possible than ever to detect Flow in other species. In this article, I propose a framework for comparative Flow research on humans and great apes. I conserve the original nine-component definition of human Flow developed by Csikszentmihalyi and its three conditional components, but re-structure the six experiential components into three dimensions: Focus, Motivation, and Affect. I evaluate the evidence for each dimension and component in great apes, and how current human Flow methods may translate to great apes. If Flow state exists beyond our species, this has major implications. It would provide insight into the evolution of internally derived happiness and ignite more comparative research in the field of positive psychology. Second, knowledge of Flow or a Flow-like state in other species would inform the design of more effective enrichment and therefore promote higher captive animal welfare. I hope to spark new discussions among human positive psychologists, comparative psychologists, and animal cognition and welfare scientists, so that we may begin to conceptualize and recognize non-human Flow.

The use of computer technology within zoos is becoming increasingly popular to help achieve high animal welfare standards. However, despite its various positive applications to wildlife in recent years, there has been little uptake of machine learning in zoo animal care. In this paper, we describe how a facial recognition system, developed using machine learning, was embedded within a cognitive enrichment device (a vertical, modular finger maze) for a troop of seven Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Bristol Zoo Gardens, UK. We explored whether machine learning could automatically identify individual gorillas through facial recognition, and automate the collection of device-use data including the order, frequency and duration of use by the troop. Concurrent traditional video recording and behavioral coding by eye was undertaken for comparison. The facial recognition system was very effective at identifying individual gorillas (97% mean average precision) and could automate specific downstream tasks (for example, duration of engagement). However, its development was a heavy investment, requiring specialized hardware and interdisciplinary expertise. Therefore, we suggest a system like this is only appropriate for long-term projects. Additionally, researcher input was still required to visually identify which maze modules were being used by gorillas and how. This highlights the need for additional technology, such as infrared sensors, to fully automate cognitive enrichment evaluation. To end, we describe a future system that combines machine learning and sensor technology which could automate the collection of data in real-time for use by researchers and animal care staff.

Cognitive enrichment is a growing subset of environmental enrichment for captive animals. However, it has been difficult for practitioners to design, implement, and evaluate relevant and appropriate cognitive challenges. Even though pure comparative cognition researchers focus on fundamental evolutionary questions, their knowledge and expertise can also shape the future of cognitive enrichment. This paper describes the motive, means, and opportunity to do so. Taxon-specific summaries of animal cognition (including inter-individual variation in skill and effects of motivation), and experimental designs (including the task itself, training, and reward) need to be accessible to practitioners in applied settings, such as farms, zoos, and sanctuaries. Furthermore, I invite pure researchers to directly evaluate their cognitive research program as enrichment and thus bridge the disciplines of animal cognition and welfare.

Sound is a complex feature of all environments, but captive animals' soundscapes (acoustic scenes) have been studied far less than those of wild animals. Furthermore, research across farms, laboratories, pet shelters, and zoos tends to focus on just one aspect of environmental sound measurement: its pressure level or intensity (in decibels). We review the state of the art of captive animal acoustic research and contrast this to the wild, highlighting new opportunities for the former to learn from the latter. We begin with a primer on sound, aimed at captive researchers and animal caregivers with an interest (rather than specific expertise) in acoustics. Then, we summarize animal acoustic research broadly split into measuring sound from animals, or their environment. We guide readers from soundwave to soundscape and through the burgeoning field of conservation technology, which offers new methods to capture multiple features of complex, gestalt soundscapes. Our review ends with suggestions for future research, and a practical guide to sound measurement in captive environments.

Animal cognition covers various mental processes including perception, learning, decision-making and memory, and animal behavior is often used as a proxy for measuring cognition. Animal cognition/behavior research has multiple benefits; it provides fundamental knowledge of animal biology and evolution but can also have applied conservation and welfare applications. Zoos provide an excellent yet relatively untapped resource for animal cognition research, because they house a wide variety of species-many of which are under threat-and allow close observation and relatively high experimental control compared to the wild. Multi-zoo collaboration leads to increased sample size and species representation, which in turn leads to more robust science. However, there are salient challenges associated with zoo-based cognitive research, which are animal-based (e.g., small sample sizes at single zoos, untrained/unhabituated subjects, side effects) and human-based (e.g., time restrictions, safety concerns, and perceptions of animals interacting with unnatural technology or apparatus). We aim to increase the understanding and subsequent uptake of animal cognition research in zoos, by transparently outlining the main benefits and challenges. Importantly, we use our own research (1) a study on novelty responses in hornbills, and (2) a multi-site collaboration called the "ManyBirds" Project to demonstrate how challenges may be overcome. These potential options include using "drop and go" apparatuses that require no training, close human contact or animal separation. This study is aimed at zoo animal care and research staff, as well as external researchers interested in zoo-based studies.

Captive mammals respond emotionally toward cognitive challenges, but research has precluded marine mammals. A potential indicator of emotion in toothed cetaceans is a large singular bubble (‘burst’) emitted from the blowhole, previously linked to surprise and excitement. Our study analysed bursts from a published study on dolphin cognitive enrichment. Bursts were only produced by task-engaged (72%) or task-spectating (28%) dolphins (n = 6 males in total). Burst frequency increased with the proportion of task engagement and spectator frequency, but not task progress or success (providing no evidence for an instantaneous ‘Eureka moment’). Bursts were reduced in frequency over three weeks, consistent with a decrease in task-engagement. Bursts were significantly more likely to come at the start of a bout of task-engagement than in the middle or end. We suggest bursts were an emotional response signaling dolphins’ instantaneous judgement of the task, more likely related to positive affect (interest, curiosity) than negative affect (frustration). They appear unrelated to respiration. It was unclear whether bursts were produced consciously and had a social function. We call for further dedicated research on the emotional valence of cetacean bursts. This will require simultaneous behavioural and acoustic measurements under different levels of more controlled challenge.

Chapter 5 What Is There to Learn in a Zoo Setting? Fay Clark, Fay ClarkSearch for more papers by this author Fay Clark, Fay ClarkSearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Vicky A. Melfi, Vicky A. Melfi Hartpury University, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, UKSearch for more papers by this authorNicole R. Dorey, Nicole R. Dorey Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorSamantha J. Ward, Samantha J. Ward School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Brakenhurst Campus, Southwell, UKSearch for more papers by this author First published: 13 December 2019 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118968543.ch5 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary This chapter provides an overview of the types of learning an animal may experience during its lifetime in the zoo, and the implications of these for their captive management. In a zoo setting, natal homing (the process by which animals return to their birthplace to reproduce) is largely redundant since animals cannot move large distances, but animals may associate conditions learned in early life with conditions suitable for breeding. In a zoo setting, social group membership can change regularly with births, deaths, and between- zoo transfers, thus requiring animals to learn how to regularly recognise individuals and establish and maintain social bonds. In captive settings, primates have learned to deceive their groupmates and hide knowledge from others in elaborately competitive strategies. For many species in a zoo setting, social also encompasses interactions and relationships with caregivers, known more formally as 'human–animal interactions' and 'human–animal relationships.'. Zoo Animal Learning and Training RelatedInformation

The field of environmental enrichment for zoo animals, particularly great apes, has been revived by technological advancements such as touchscreen interfaces and motion sensors. However, direct animal-computer interaction (ACI) is impractical or undesirable for many zoos. We developed a modular cuboid puzzle maze for the troop of six Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Bristol Zoo Gardens, United Kingdom. The gorillas could use their fingers or tools to interact with interconnected modules and remove food rewards. Twelve modules could be interchanged within the frame to create novel iterations with every trial. We took a screen-free approach to enrichment: substituting ACI for tactile, physically complex device components, in addition to hidden automatic sensors, and cameras to log device use. The current study evaluated the gorillas’ behavioral responses to the device, and evaluated it as a form of “cognitive enrichment.” Five out of six gorillas used the device, during monthly trials of 1 h duration, over a 6 month period. All users were female including two infants, and there were significant individual differences in duration of device use. The successful extraction of food rewards was only performed by the three tool-using gorillas. Device use did not diminish over time, and gorillas took turns to use the device alone or as one mother-infant dyad. Our results suggest that the device was a form of cognitive enrichment for the study troop because it allowed gorillas to solve novel challenges, and device use was not associated with behavioral indicators of stress or frustration. However, device exposure had no significant effects on gorilla activity budgets. The device has the potential to be a sustainable enrichment method in the long-term, tailored to individual gorilla skill levels and motivations. Our study represents a technological advancement for gorilla enrichment, an area which had been particularly overlooked until now. We wholly encourage the continued development of this physical maze system for other great apes under human care, with or without computer logging technology.