The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among religiosity, sport opportunities, and physical activity participation in the USA. The research comprises two studies. The first study investigated whether county-level religiosity (N = 3064 counties or administrative units) is associated with adult physical activity levels. Results of regression analysis indicate that higher proportions of Mainline Protestants, Catholics, and adherents of other religious traditions are positively associated with access to recreational and sport facilities, which, in turn, relate to higher physical activity levels. The total model explained 67.7

IntroductionThis study examines the role of societal, interpersonal, and individual factors in explaining Europeans’ attitudes toward gender equality in sport and the role of interactions between gender, age, and social class.MethodsThe empirical analysis uses survey data from residents in 27 European countries in 2022 (n = 19,396). Respondents’ attitudes toward gender equality in sport are captured by two statements about evenly following female and male sport in the media and the inspirational potential of female role models among managers, athletes, officials, and coaches. Regression analyses are estimated with the attitude variables as outcomes. Societal (gender equality climate in country), interpersonal (sport participation), and individual factors (gender, age, social class; and their interactions) served as independent variables.ResultsThe results show that respondents have higher attitudes toward female role models than toward female sport in the media. A country’s gender equality climate has a negative association with following female sport in the media, but a positive one with female role models. Sport participation is positively associated with female sport in the media. Women score higher on both attitude measures. Older individuals and those from lower social classes evenly follow female sport in the media. Interactions between gender, age, and social class also explain attitudes toward gender equality in sport.DiscussionThis study is innovative as it provides information about how the resident population thinks about gender equality in sport and which factors are relevant for higher or lower attitudes. The European-wide dataset is unique and allows a comprehensive analysis.

This study examined the association between community political ideology and gender equity in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletic departments. Data from five presidential election cycles (2004-2020) yielded 1,718 institutional observations. County-level vote shares were drawn from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology lab, and ZIP-to-county mappings from Department of Housing and Urban Development were used to link institutions to local contexts. Gender equity was measured across three dimensions: the share of female athletes (participation representation), the share of student aid to women (aid equity), and the share of recruiting budgets for women's teams (recruiting equity). Lagged vote share was used to account for temporal ordering. Females comprised 44.9% of athletes, received 47.2% of aid, and their teams received 35.8% of recruiting budgets. Regression results showed Democratic vote share was positively associated with all three outcomes. Path analysis indicated these associations were partially mediated by the proportion of female undergraduates. Findings support institutional theory and highlight how political context shapes gender equity.

American football holds immense cultural significance, from its impressive youth participation rates to the coverage of professional football. However, the reach of American football extends beyond cultural significance, as societal values and norms are frequently mimicked or even amplified in major sport settings. American football is a context that highlights the privileges of heterosexuality and cisgender people, effectively discouraging people from disclosing their lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) status. Because LGBTQ+ inclusion has received less attention in the American football context, and bias against LGBTQ+ people is common in sport, this paper aimed to explore LGBTQ+ inclusion in American football. Drawing on our related scholarship in this area, we present a multilevel framework, highlighting macrolevel (i.e., societal), mesolevel (i.e., organizational), and microlevel (i.e., individual) factors that shape LGBTQ+ inclusion in American football. The discussion includes strategies to implement LGBTQ+ inclusion in American football, as well as a call for further research.

The extant Western discourse around the FIFA World Cup 2022 in Qatar has focused upon issues such as human rights abuses, sportswashing, environment, and corruption allegations. Though these issues are important to address, comparatively little scholarship has examined the positive social, economic, and cultural outcomes of the FIFA World Cup 2022 for Qatar and the Arab world. In this book chapter, the authors elucidate positive changes happening due to the FIFA World Cup being hosted in Qatar. The authors highlight how numerous changes in Qatar have a broader impact on the Muslim world and beyond. Rather than taking an Orientalist Eurocentric view – one that pervades much of the sport scholarship – the authors argue that a broader approach is warranted to understand the complexities of the region. This book chapter adds to the limited knowledge regarding how sporting mega-events in the Arab world could be a source of transformational policy actions.

Background Despite some gains, women continue to have less access to work and poorer experiences in the workplace, relative to men. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among women's life expectancy and two work-related factors, sexual harassment and gender-career biases.Method We examined the associations at the state level of analysis (and District of Columbia) in the US from 2011 to 2019 (n = 459) using archival data from various sources. Measures of the ratio of population to primary health providers, year, the percent of adults who are uninsured, the percent of residents aged 65 or older, and percent of residents who are Non-Hispanic White all served as controls.Results Results of linear regression models showed that, after accounting for the controls, sexual harassment and gender-career biases among people in the state held significant, negative associations with women's life expectancy.Conclusion The study contributes to the small but growing literature showing that negative workplace experiences and bias against women in the workplace negatively impact women's health.

Drawing from theories of intergroup bias (Dovidio et al. 2010), the purpose of this study was to examine the association between a community's implicit bias against racially minoritized people and LGBTQ+ people, and attendance at Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) games. Ten years of data (2010-2019) were collected from publicly available sources (N = 120 team seasons). Dependent variables included average attendance and percent capacity. After accounting for factors previously shown to impact demand for WNBA games (arena capacity, city population, and winning percentage), a community's implicit bias toward LGBTQ+ people was significantly and negatively associated with both demand outcomes. Collective implicit racial biases were not related to either attendance variable. The findings have practical implications for WNBA teams and the league, including sites for future teams. The study contributes to the growing literature showing that community biases can impact organizational outcomes.

Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks of Latino Critical Race Theory (LatCrit) and Sport for Development and Peace Theory, this study seeks to examine the potential of sport participation, physical activity, and community programs as mechanisms for addressing the challenges confronted by Latinx immigrants in the United States. The research is anchored by two primary questions: What social, legal, and economic challenges are encountered by Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals recipients, undocumented individuals, and the broader Latinx community in the United States, and how might involvement in sports, physical activity, and community events help mitigate these challenges. To investigate these questions, an ethnographic methodology was adopted, with data collected over a 13-week period in a predominantly Latinx community in Houston, Texas. The research findings underscore the resilience demonstrated by these individuals in response to the complex challenges within US society and highlight the crucial role of community-oriented sports and cultural programs in fostering inclusivity. The authors provide a comprehensive analysis of the findings and offer recommendations for future practical initiatives centered on community-oriented approaches.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships among diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI), sport and the metaverse.Design/methodology/approachThe authors overview the metaverse, sport applications and ways multilevel theory can help explain the influence of DEI.FindingsDrawing from multilevel theory, the authors identify parallels between the sport metaverse and traditional sport as well as unique DEI opportunities in the sport metaverse.Originality/valueThe manuscript contributes to the nascent body of research regarding sport and the metaverse, with a specific focus on social issues and the importance of considering unique DEI opportunities.

Despite the burgeoning Latinx student population in the United States, a conspicuous gap exists in the academic literature, particularly within the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) context. Consequently, the central objective of this study was to redress this void by analyzing the racial experiences encountered by NCAA Division I Latinx student-athletes enrolled in Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). To fulfill this objective, the researchers applied a qualitative phenomenological approach, seeking an in-depth comprehension of the significance of diversity practices within the distinct educational milieus inhabited by the study’s participants. Employing Latin Critical Race Theory (LatCrit) as the theoretical framework, the authors gathered data through six semi-structured interviews and supplemented this information with pertinent diversity and inclusion-related information derived from each participating university and the respective athletic programs. The study’s findings underscored the persistent issue of racial discrimination confronted by NCAA Division I Latinx student-athletes within the university setting. Remarkably, despite the extensive diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) trainings and councils within these institutions, Latinx student-athletes continued to grapple with racial disparities. Indeed, recurring themes from the data highlighted their significant reliance on familial support and campus resources as strategies for navigating and mitigating these challenges. In light of a substantial body of scholarly work that recognizes the critical importance of DEI in sport, this study serves as a poignant reminder of the pressing need for further academic and practical endeavors aimed at effectively addressing racial disparities.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among the political leanings of a state, the state-level implicit and explicit biases against transgender people, and the presence of transgender athlete bans. The authors collected archival data from 2021 and 2022 bans in the United States to examine the hypotheses. As of 2022, 18 states had passed laws barring transgender athletes from participating in sports. Results from regression analyses showed that conservative-leaning states were more likely to enact transgender athlete bans than their peers. The relationship was mediated by explicit (but not implicit) bias toward transgender people. The findings have implications for research and practice. Sport managers have an opportunity to create transgender-inclusive workplaces for staff, coaches, and other managers. They should also work with campus counselors and other staff to ensure that transgender athletes have ample support.

This study examines the factors affecting women officials' intention to leave their chosen sport, including personal, work-related, and sociocultural factors. The empirical analysis is based on survey data of women officials in 69 different sports across Europe (n = 3,214). Overall, 10.7% of women expressed a turnover intention. Regression analyses indicate that this intention is higher for women who have more officiating experience (16-20 years), officiate at lower levels of sport (grassroots, junior), frequently experience abuse, and dislike the stress and time commitments of officiating, lack of support from the federation, and their lack of opportunity to progress. Younger women (<= 24 years) with a mentor, who enjoy being part of a sport community and live in a more gender equal society are less likely to leave. The fi ndings suggest that multiple factors are at work, which need to be addressed by sport managers to retain women in officiating roles.

Research Question Researchers have previously underscored the importance of understanding how people from different backgrounds engage in sport. This recognition, coupled with a variety of socio-political factors (e.g. Muslim population immigration to the West, the war against terrorism, Muslim women athletes' growing sport participation, and mega-events hosted by Muslim majority countries), have spurred an increased interest in exploring Muslim community's sport participation. Nevertheless, a review and integration of this scholarship are missing. The purpose of this paper was to conduct a scoping review of the extant research focusing on the Muslim community in sport. Research Method The authors examined n = 157 articles from four databases and reference lists by employing Arksey and O'Malley's (2005, Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19-32) scoping review methodological approach. Results and Findings Results showed that most of the research about the Muslim community is conducted in Western countries (62.4%), and researchers mostly employ qualitative research methods (78.9%). Additionally, scholars have mainly focused on sociological issues Muslim women face in the Western context by employing theoretical frameworks, such as the concept of 'habitus,' intersectionality, and the theory of planned behavior. Findings suggest epistemological Eurocentric bias in the scholarship, which the authors contextualize in the framework of Orientalism. Implications Overall, this scoping review implies scholars should look for new avenues of research in the future concerning the Muslim community within the sporting realm. Further, researchers need to unveil and dismantle Eurocentric biases in the extant sport scholarship related to the Muslim community.

Research QuestionDrawing from the Interactional Model of Cultural Diversity, the purpose of this study was to examine how individual-, interpersonal-, and sport-level factors related to female officials' perceptions of their sport's diversity climate.Research MethodsThe authors draw on data from a comprehensive, European-based survey of female officials in various sports. Respondents reported about their officiating biography, characteristics of their main sport, and individual characteristics (n = 3,214). Information about a sport's level of subjectivity and contact with athletes was added to the data. Diversity climate was assessed using the mean of a 12-item scale.Results and FindingsThe results of regression analyses show that years officiating, officiating with more male than female officials, and education all held negative associations with the sport's diversity climate. On the other hand, the presence of a mentor was positively associated with diversity climate.ImplicationsCollectively, the findings suggest that different factors shape female officials' perceptions of the diversity climate in their sport. Sport organizations need to be aware of these factors and develop measures to improve the diversity climate for female officials and ultimately foster their retention in the sport.

Transgender inclusion continues to be a hotly debated topic; however, research focusing on inclusion’s relationship with organizational outcomes is lacking. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among public transgender policies, community-level transgender biases, and measures of organizational effectiveness in the context of US intercollegiate athletics. Data were collected through archival sources from 224 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic departments. Transgender policies and community biases were not related to athletic performance, but they were related to gender equity. Cluster analyses revealed unique profiles of athletic departments with inclusive transgender policies and low community bias levels. These athletic departments outperformed their peers in both measures of effectiveness. Transgender policies related to greater gender equity. Such policies signal an organizational commitment to fostering inclusivity and equal opportunities for all gender identities, which can contribute to more inclusive sport organizations. The study’s findings underscore the significance of addressing contextual biases. By addressing biases, aligning policies with community values, and promoting inclusive practices, sport organizations can foster an environment that not only enhances athlete well-being but also contributes to overall organizational success.

ABSTRACT Research question Muslim women are increasingly purchasing sporting products. However, there remains a dearth of sport marketing scholarship detailing the key predictors of Muslim women's sporting products purchase intention. The purpose of this study was to explore the determinants of Muslim women's pro-sport Hijab purchase intention through the lens of the theory of planned behavior. Research methods Following Ajzen's (2019) recommendations, we collected data from Muslim women transnationally by using a mixed-method study (i.e. sequential exploratory design) approach: Study 1 (n = 23), Study 2 (n = 282), and Study 3 (n = 347). Results and findings The study results revealed that participants’ pro-sport Hijab purchase intention was influenced by subjective norms (β = .578) and their attitude (β = .187). Further, subjective norms for the participants were shaped by their unique injunctive and descriptive normative beliefs. Additionally, participants’ attitude towards pro-Sport Hijab was dependent upon their distinctive behavioral beliefs. Implications This study contributes to the limited knowledge detailing Muslim women's sporting products purchase intention. We argue that, as a way of enhancing Muslim women's sport consumption, sport marketers should develop products to help Muslim women comply with their religious beliefs. We further discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this study.