Estimating vehicular emissions by integrating traffic simulation and emission models has become an important area of research. This study presents four approaches to reduce vehicle emissions and improve air quality at selected intersections in the Lagos Metropolis, using the PTV VISSIM traffic microsimulation model. Traffic parameters, including volume, speed, and vehicle composition, were incorporated into a calibrated model to simulate existing conditions. Different traffic management scenarios involving changes in traffic volume, vehicle composition, and intersection signalization were assessed to determine their effects on traffic performance and emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Roadside emission measurements were used to calibrate baseline conditions. In addition, GIS-based air quality modelling was applied to estimate 1-hour and 24-hour pollutant concentrations, which were validated using field measurements collected over a one-week period. The results show significant emission reductions across all scenarios. Scenario 1 achieved reductions of 41% in CO and 53% in NOx; Scenario 2 achieved 60% and 54% reductions, respectively; and Scenario 3 achieved 46% and 68% reductions, respectively. The introduction of intersection signalization improved traffic flow by reducing delays and increasing vehicle speeds, thereby lowering emission levels. Furthermore, the GIS-based modelling results demonstrate the potential of integrating detailed traffic data with instantaneous exhaust emission estimates and filtered urban background concentrations to generate accurate input data for Gaussian dispersion models applied at the urban scale. The findings provide strategies to improve traffic management, reduce congestion, and mitigate traffic-related air pollution in rapidly growing African cities.

Global and local traffic safety reports indicate that pedestrians account for a significant share of road traffic deaths and injuries, particularly in urban areas where vehicle-pedestrian encounters are frequent. Beyond infrastructure and policies, human factors such as fatalistic traffic beliefs and cultural superstitions (i.e. socio-cultural factors) also influence pedestrian safety. Understanding these socio-cultural factors is essential for designing effective safety campaigns and behavioural interventions. This study examined whether fatalistic beliefs moderate the relationship between risk perception and safe walking behaviour among pedestrians in Ghana. Using a cross-sectional survey of 1060 pedestrians in Accra and Kumasi and a moderation analysis, the study assessed the extent to which the influence of risk perception on walking behaviour varies across levels of fatalistic traffic beliefs. The results showed that risk perception was positively associated with safe walking behaviour, whereas fatalistic traffic beliefs had a weak positive association with it. The interaction between risk perception and fatalistic traffic beliefs was negative and statistically significant, suggesting that stronger fatalistic beliefs modestly weaken the positive relationship between risk perception and safe walking behaviour. Although the magnitude of the interaction effect was relatively small, the findings suggest that fatalistic traffic beliefs may influence how pedestrians translate perceived risk into behavioural responses. The study contributes to the growing literature on socio-cultural influences on road safety and highlights the potential value of considering fatalistic beliefs when designing context-specific pedestrian safety education and risk communication initiatives.

Abstract Electoral violence is a critical challenge in democratic governance, particularly in Africa. Crucial knowledge for its mitigation, including spatial dissimilarity, disparities, and identification of specific socio-demographic and political characteristics as potential predictors of electoral violence, is limited in Africa. Accordingly, this study investigates the geographical disparities of electoral violence and its linkages to socio-demographic and political characteristics in Ghana using the 2020 presidential and parliamentary elections. We used correlation, spatial autocorrelation and spatial inequality to examine the spatial distribution of electoral violence at the regional and constituency levels. We found high disparities in electoral violence associated with its geographical concentration in specific regions and constituencies. Electoral violence was found to be beneficial to the two dominant political parties, with neither benefiting more than the other. While recognizing the benefit of electoral violence to winning political power, a key intervention mechanism is ensuring all parties uniformly adhere to nonviolence. Electoral violence is driven less by political competition alone and more by entrenched structural and sociopolitical forces, including party mobilization strategies, persistent historical grievances, institutional weaknesses, and ethnic fragmentation. Of 19 indicators, only one relating to a misunderstanding between political parties is consistently associated with socio-demographic and political characteristics, indicating its strong influence. These findings illustrate an improved understanding of the extent of electoral violence in Ghana, its underlying drivers and location-specific contexts for effective intervention and resource allocation toward minimizing violence in the electoral process.

Rapid urbanization in developing cities increases thermal stress, but the links between urban form and socioeconomic vulnerability remain poorly understood. This study examines spatial and temporal changes of land surface temperature (LST) and Urban Heat Island (UHI) in Greater Kumasi, Ghana, using Landsat data from 2015 to 2024. It connects thermal patterns to urban form, Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI), Bare Soil Index (BSI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI), along with socioeconomic indicators like population and Relative Wealth Index. The analytical techniques include trend detection (Mann-Kendall, Sen's slope), correlation analysis, hotspot mapping, and spatial overlays. The results reveal distinct warming trends, with annual LST increases of up to 1.53 degrees C and UHI intensification of 0.7 degrees C in areas such as Sokoban, Magazine, and Kumasi Central. Strong positive correlations between thermal metrics and built-up areas and bare soil underscore the significant role of impervious surfaces in heat accumulation, while weaker and positive relationships with NDVI and NDMI indicate limited cooling from vegetation and moisture. The hotspot analysis demonstrated that extreme thermal conditions predominantly affect highdensity and lower-income areas, revealing patterns of unequal heat exposure linked to socioeconomic disadvantages. These findings underscore the need for equity-driven urban heat mitigation strategies, particularly nature-based solutions and climate-conscious planning, to address rising thermal risks in rapidly expanding African cities.

Road transport for cities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is dominated by paratransit, whose GHG emissions are not often included in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) - the climate action plans made to cut emissions and adapt to climate impacts. Paratransit services are fraught with several challenges, making it difficult to provide reliable inventories of their traffic emissions. Accordingly, this study presents the baseline estimation of traffic emissions for paratransit modes in Accra-Ghana and Dar es Salaam-Tanzania. Traffic pollutants CO, CO2, NO2, SO2, and PM are estimated for 52 routes in Accra-Ghana and 57 routes in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania using minibuses, taxis, and three-wheelers, and their performance measures. The study established higher traffic emissions for paratransit modes in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania compared to Accra-Ghana. We found that traffic emission by passenger volume was better in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania for CO, NO2, and SO2, whereas the rate was lower in Accra-Ghana for CO2 and PM. In Accra-Ghana, travel fare and population have strong relationships with traffic pollutants, whereas travel fare, economic status and population have poor relationships with pollutants in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania. Crucially, this study contributes to the development of inventories on paratransit GHG emissions towards their incorporation into NDCs.

This study addresses the limitations of Ghana's road traffic crash database, which lacks geographical coordinates, making it difficult to conduct spatial analyses for effective road safety interventions. The research focuses on creating a spatial database and performing spatiotemporal and statistical analyses of road traffic crashes along the N6 and N10 highways in the Ashanti Region from 2018 to 2020. A combination of primary and secondary data sources was used, with crash location data geocoded using postmile linear referencing. Validation of geocoded data was conducted using ground truth points, and positional accuracy was assessed through Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) calculations. Various spatial statistical methods, including Kernel Density Estimation and Hotspot Analysis using Getis-Ord Gi*, were applied to identify crash clusters and high-risk locations. The results indicate that geocoded crash points were accurate, with RMSE values of ±15 m for northings and ± 14 m for eastings, aligning with the recommended 100m buffer for crash location accuracy. The findings highlight critical crash hotspots, particularly at major intersections, emphasizing the need for targeted road safety interventions. The study demonstrates the potential of integrating geospatial data with traditional crash databases to improve road safety planning in Ghana.

Public transport (PT) systems in sub-Saharan African (SSA) cities are critical for urban mobility and economic development, yet they face numerous challenges that hinder their efficiency, equity, and sustainability. These challenges include exorbitant operating costs, deteriorating road infrastructure, and significant gender imbalances among the stakeholders involved in planning, management, and operation. Addressing these interconnected issues is essential for developing robust, equitable, and efficient PT systems that can support the growing urban populations in SSA. Accordingly, this study examines key stakeholders' perspectives on improving PT through an in-depth analysis of PT systems in Accra-Ghana, and Dar es Salaam (DAR)-Tanzania, focusing on stakeholders, existing systems, route configurations, fares, vehicle distribution, service areas, passenger information, operations, and capacity-building needs. The study findings are based on data collected from a semi-structured interview guide administered in person to 20 agencies in Accra-Ghana, and 12 agencies in DAR-Tanzania involving local government, transport regulators, transport unions, user groups, law enforcement, and research institutions. The findings reveal significant gender imbalances among stakeholders, high operating costs, poor road conditions, and poor fare structures in both cities. Despite these challenges, there is a strong commitment to improving PT systems through better route setup, vehicle allocation, and passenger information systems. The study highlights the importance of tailored solutions to address the unique needs and challenges of PT in each city. Policy implications include addressing gender imbalances, improving road conditions, reducing operating costs, and promoting fare transparency and professional certification. By leveraging these insights, policymakers and urban planners can develop targeted interventions to create more efficient, equitable, and sustainable PT systems in Accra-Ghana and DAR-Tanzania and, by extension, in SSA cities.

Urban mobility is crucial in shaping safety perceptions, health outcomes, and accessibility experiences. However, disparities in urban mobility patterns, particularly regarding safety, health, and accessibility, require further exploration to inform equitable and sustainable solutions in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Accordingly, this study provides a comparative analysis of transport-related safety in Kumasi-Ghana, and Dar es Salaam (DAR), Tanzania, focusing on community safety perceptions, health impacts, and mobility choices. Using the Perceived Accessibility Scale and a semi-structured data collection framework, the study explores key transport-related safety indicators, including infrastructure quality, inclusivity, and health-related mobility considerations. The study findings are based on data collected from 600 respondents in Kumasi-Ghana, and 1189 in DAR-Tanzania. The findings reveal that Kumasi-Ghana exhibits relatively stronger safety perceptions, whereas DAR-Tanzania faces heightened accessibility challenges, particularly for vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children, and persons with disabilities. Statistical relationships reveal distinct urban mobility patterns, with travel cost emerging as a dominant factor in DAR-Tanzania's travel decisions, while safety concerns are more influential in Kumasi-Ghana. Additionally, DAR-Tanzania experiences higher travel-related stress, reinforcing the need for efficiency-oriented interventions such as congestion management and improved public transport reliability. Policy implications underscore the need for targeted infrastructure investments, inclusive transport design, and affordability measures. Both cities require enhancements in pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, with DAR-Tanzania demonstrating a greater need for interventions benefiting vulnerable populations. Integrating health-conscious mobility strategies, such as air quality improvements and active transport promotion, can foster sustainability benefits. Through these findings, policymakers can enhance mobility and well-being through equitable and sustainable transport solutions that address urban safety, economic constraints, and health-related challenges.

Transport fares are a critical revenue stream for any sustainable public transportation system. The literature on public transport fares in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is very limited and it is unknown the fare structures used, how they are determined, and the factors considered. Accordingly, this study investigates the spatial disparities of public transport fares in the city of Kumasi, Ghana. Using a spatial analytic approach, we examined the extent to which fares are spatially dissimilar across routes based on travel distance, travel time, mode, economic status, and population. Primary data was collected using the General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS)-like format, allowing the estimation of key performance indicators such as fare per kilometer travelled, fare per minute travelled, and average fare paid per passenger. Secondary data on economic status and population density were used. Based on 48 routes for minibus and taxis, we found that one kilometer of travel distance attracts fares between 1 Ghana Cedis (GHS) (0.08USD) and 8GHS (0.71USD), whereas one minute of travel time attracts fares between 1GHS and 6GHS. For each kilometer travelled, Taxi (i.e. saloon car) services charge 3.5 times for every GHS fare for a minibus (i.e. Trotro), whereas for each minute travelled, Taxi services charge 2.2 times for every GHS fare for Trotro. Relationships with economic status show that economically disadvantaged populations pay more fares, travel longer distances, and spend more time travelling. Essentially, economically disadvantaged populations are burdened with higher travel costs. Also, travel cost was found to be more influenced by distance than the fares charged in Kumasi. Highly populated communities were found to pay relatively higher fares, and travel longer durations and over longer distances, but are associated with lower fare rates. The findings show that fares for paratransit services are inconsistent in Kumasi and are spatially differentiated by route, distance travelled, travel time, service type, economic status, and population density. There is limited evidence that fares are deliberately inconsistent, however, fare disparities are the direct outcome of the existing systemic structural arrangement with paratransit, mostly built on underlying political economy, social injustice, labor exploitation, and lack of investment. It is recommended that transport authorities define a clear fare structure, apply it consistently, and communicate the rationale and the driving factors behind fare disparities to ensure transparency in pricing public transport services.

Transport-related accessibility is important, as it enables individuals to live their daily lives and travel to activity destinations they value. Access to valued opportunities is a prerequisite to address social inclusion and quality of life. Unlike conventional accessibility measures, perceived accessibility focuses on the perceived possibilities and ease of engaging in preferred activities using different transport modes. Perceived access to essential destinations such as workplaces and shopping, and its integration with objective measures are severely under-studied in sub-Saharan African cities. Kumasi-Ghana and Dar es Salaam-Tanzania offer an ideal case for investigating the effects of accessibility to workplace and shopping destinations in the context of informal urban communities. This study measures perceived accessibility, determines its comparability to objective measures, and examines the underlying socio-demographic factors to better understand the factors influencing commuters' perceptions of accessibility. Our findings established a relationship between perceived and objective accessibility to workplaces and shopping in both cities. Commuters' ratings of accessibility in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania were lower than those from Kumasi-Ghana. This was in agreement with higher travel times to these destinations in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania compared to Kumasi-Ghana. We found that the decreasing order of influence on travel perception in both cities is travel characteristics, community transport, and the built environment. Also, the decreasing order of impact on travel is travel cost, time, and frequency, highlighting travel cost as the primary concern for residents in both cities. Relatedly, the decreasing order of influence on travel perception is comfort, satisfaction, and success in Kumasi-Ghana whereas in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania it is travel success, satisfaction, and comfort. The findings establish similarities between commuters' subjectively determined accessibility and the established objective measures (e.g., travel cost, time, etc.).

Evaluating road surface conditions is a crucial aspect of the operation and maintenance of road infrastructure. This issue is particularly pronounced for unpaved roads, which lack protective hard surfaces like concrete or asphalt. New methods are emerging for identifying and extracting road surface condition parameters from remotely sensed imagery. Accordingly, this study demonstrates an approach to identify and extract road surface condition parameters from remotely sensed images obtained from unpaved roads with distinctive environmental characteristics. An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) was employed to capture images of unpaved roads, which were then pre-processed and analysed by constructing a digital elevation model (DEM) and orthomosaic. The processed imagery was validated against conventional field measurements of road defects. The number of defects identified and their severity was comparable for both methods. The defect counts were similar in all cases except for one, which varied between the two approaches. The predictions of defect severity, expressed as percent count, were accurate -vegetation encroachment had the highest rate at 100 %, while depression had the lowest at 25 %. These findings highlight thepotential of using remotely sensed imagery from UAVS to identify, extract, and measure road surface condition parameters for unpaved roads. The results can assist road agencies in the country in promoting low-cost and effective road maintenance operations.

Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) is a serious public health risk in today's cities, causing premature death and a wide range of global diseases such as respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders. This study evaluated a local emission inventory and monitored ambient air quality in the Lagos metropolis through roadside observations of five traffic air pollutants using portable emission devices on selected roadways. Traffic mobility metrics, such as flow, speed, and vehicle fleet composition, were recorded over eleven (11) hours daily. Geospatial analysis identified pollution hotspots across various emission monitoring points on each corridor. Findings revealed that arterial composition and traffic flow significantly influence emission levels. The highest traffic volumes were recorded during the morning (7–9 a.m.) and evening (4–8 p.m.) peak periods, while the lowest pollutant concentrations occurred during the afternoon (12–2 p.m.). Pollutant levels were notably higher at bottlenecks near intersections or in traffic jams compared to points farther from the road corridors. SO₂ and NO₂ concentrations indicated moderate pollution across all routes. However, CO, PM₂.₅, and PM₁₀ concentrations on commercial and industrial routes posed severe health risks, rendering the air quality unsafe to health. Enhancing air quality monitoring across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is essential for developing robust national responses to combat air pollution and safeguard public health.

Urban flooding significantly affects the health and well‐being of populations, yet its health impacts remain underexplored in Ghana and sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). This paper investigates the health effects of recurring floods on households in Greater Kumasi through a qualitative study involving 55 purposively selected household heads. The findings reveal substantial negative health consequences, including immediate and medium‐term issues such as injuries, bodily pain, fatigue, skin infections, upper respiratory diseases, diarrhoea, typhoid fever, and fatalities from drowning. Additionally, the study highlights a high prevalence of long‐term psychological distress among affected households. The findings highlight the under‐researched nexus between flooding and health in SSA and underscore the need for more vigorous institutional enforcement of land‐use regulations, public education and collaborative health interventions involving the Ministry of Health and other key stakeholders. These measures are critical for reducing the health risks of floods and building resilience in vulnerable communities.

The study delves into how vehicle engine characteristics impact the release of air pollutants from various vehicle fleets in Lagos, Nigeria. It involved the direct measurement of emissions from the exhaust pipes of 88 vehicles using gas analyzers. The vehicle fleets encompassed motorcycles, tricycles, private cars, minibuses, large buses, and trucks. A statistical analysis was conducted on carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions to develop a model equation based on vehicle type, engine type, vehicle age, and purchase status. Results indicate that personal cars and minibuses predominantly emit CO from gasoline engines, whereas large buses and trucks significantly contribute to NOx emissions from diesel engines. Further scrutiny revealed that 66% of the vehicles examined were over 10 years old, resulting in a 65% increase in emission levels. Approximately 60% of gasoline and 75% of diesel vehicles exceeded the permissible emission limits, leading to air quality deterioration and heightened health risks. The study underscores the risks associated with ageing vehicles and different engine types, emphasizing the imperative for a gradual transition to low-carbon or electric vehicles in developing African cities to combat air pollution and mitigate health hazards.

Walking and cycling are not just physical activities; they are essential transport modes for students in most rural parts of Africa. Therefore, calling for their promotion without critically examining accessibility in a context where the effect of distance-related land use variables and streets -a major active transport infrastructure - are assessed, leads to a futile agenda in the continent. This study seeks to address this by applying the three-step catchment floating method to assess education/school accessibility through walking and cycling in the Ayawaso East Municipal Assembly (AEMA) and Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) in Ghana. Additionally, the differences in accessibility, along with the association of street connectivity and land use variables such as the number and density of schools and catchment areas with education/school accessibility are determined by correlation and Mann-Whitney's U-tests. The findings revealed a poorly connected dendritic road network system at both locations and shortcomings in school and street network planning that have left some communities vulnerable to low education opportunities. Without policy and planning interventions to address school siting and improve street connectivity, walking and cycling will not only be hindered, but education for some communities, particularly in TaMA may be compromised.

OBJECTIVES:Pain is increasingly becoming common among middle-aged and older adults. While research on the association between pain characteristics and sleep problems (SP) is limited in low- and middle-income countries, the underlying mechanisms of the association are poorly understood. This study examines the association of bodily pain intensity and pain interference with SP and investigates the mediating role of activity limitation and emotional distress in this association. METHODS:We analyzed population-based data, including 1,201 individuals aged ≥50 (mean [SD] age 66.14 [11.85] years) from the 2016-2018 AgeHeaPsyWel-HeaSeeB study in Ghana. Multiple OLS regressions and serial multiple mediation modeling using bootstrapping analyses examined direct and indirect effects from pain to SP through activity limitation and emotional distress. RESULTS:Regressions demonstrated that pain intensity and interference were significantly associated with higher levels of activity limitation, emotional distress, and SP (range: β = 0.049-0.658). Bootstrapping analysis showed that activity limitation and emotional distress serially mediated the relationship between pain intensity and SP (total effect: β = 0.264, Bootstrap 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.165-0.362; direct effect: (β = 0.107, Bootstrap 95% CI = 0.005-0.210; total indirect effect: β = 0.156, Bootstrap 95% CI = 0.005-0.210) accounting for ∼59%. Activity limitation and emotional distress mediated pain interference and SP association (total effect: β = 0.404, Bootstrap 95% CI = 0.318-0.490; direct effect: β = 0.292, Bootstrap 95% CI = 0.201-0.384; and total indirect effect: β = 0.112, Bootstrap 95% CI = 0.069-0.156) yielding ∼28%. CONCLUSION:Our data suggest that activity limitation and emotional distress may convey stress-related risks of pain on SP. Future research should evaluate if activity limitation and emotional distress could be effective targets to reduce the effect of pain on sleep in later-life.

Informal urban communities (IUCs) in sub-Saharan Africa constitute some two-thirds of SSA cities. IUCs are often associated with lower-quality housing, low-income populations, low car ownership, and poor mobility infrastructure. As such, most IUC dwellers rely on shared mobility modes that are unsafe and inconvenient. The current study examines potential and perceived access in terms of travel distance and time to six selected socioeconomic activity types in selected IUCs in Kumasi-Ghana, and Dar es Salaam-Tanzania. This was underpinned by evaluating residents' perception of ease of access to workplace in relation to demographics, neighborhood characteristics, transport services characteristics, and travel characteristics. The applied multinomial logistic regression identified factors relating to age, education, income, travel time, road condition, access to major roads, travel modes, community location, inclusivity, safety, and affordability as strong indicators to enhance travel experiences. Across all activity types, the potential travel time underestimates the perceived travel time by 133% in Kumasi-Ghana, and 50% in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania. The overall access to socioeconomic activities based on travel distance and times was found to be relatively more favorable in Kumasi-Ghana than those in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania.

At the heart of this paper are concerns for food security and sustainability-two challenges of wide relevance for geographers. Our work focuses specifically on the Guinea northern savanna ecological zone of Ghana, where poverty is grim and livelihood opportunities are limited and the intersection of urban expansion and livelihood dynamics is not well understood. This study analysed trends in and effects of urban expansion on farmers' livelihoods in four peri-urban communities around Tamale in the Republic of Ghana. The study employed a mixed methods design comprising quantitative and qualitative methods. It used geospatial techniques, secondary data, and a qualitative study involving 56 heads of households and seven key informants. Results indicate that while the surface area of farmlands reduced by 77% from 1996 to 2023, urban or built-up areas increased by 93% in the same period. Findings show that while urban expansion reduced the sizes of farmlands, households' agricultural output, and income, it created nonfarm livelihood opportunities for some households. To minimise the effects of urbanisation-induced arable land shrinkage, affected households adopted three strategies: agricultural intensification, agricultural diversification, and adoption of nonfarm livelihood activities. Key policy initiatives by the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly are needed to protect agricultural lands to stem declining agricultural production and to ensure livelihood sustainability in the metropolis.

Equity of access to electoral polling stations (EPS) is a key to enhancing the legitimacy of elections in democratic governance. A crucial characteristic of this equity is the level of spatial access to EPS and its distribution among populations and related socio-economic determinants. This study investigates the disparities of access to EPS for four selected regions in Ghana. The findings show that economic status and access to EPS are inversely related, indicating that access to EPS is not equitable within and between regions. The poor access for economically disadvantaged populations is indicative of unequal access to basic socioeconomic opportunities.