The present work's principal goal is to use a maximum ethanol dose range of 20 % and 40 % by volume instead of commercial diesel fuel in diesel engines. Biodiesel fuel has been utilized as a blend with a higher percentage, serving as a renewable fuel with the aid of using fuel blend surfactant additives. However, this goal has been pursued using a new surfactant material to improve the stability and solubility of ethanol/biodiesel/diesel fuel blends over time, known as Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP). This is because there have been limited efforts to replace commercial fuel using a sustainable and renewable energy source, such as biodiesel and ethanol. In this endeavor, a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine fueled with a blend of 48.75 % biodiesel/48.75 % diesel + 2.5 % TBP by volume, combined with 20 % and 40 % ethanol, has been tested. The engine operating parameters, such as brake power with ethanol blend percentage, were enhanced by applying the central composite design method (CCD). The technical comparison of engine performance and emissions characteristics at different ethanol concentrations of 0 %, 20 %, and 40 % allowed for a thorough analysis. Among the findings, the ideal engine power was determined to be 1.93 kW at 0 % ethanol, using response surface methodology (RSM) optimizer data. At 20 % and 40 % ethanol concentration in the fuel blends by volume, BTE%, T degrees C, and NOx concentrations were determined to be approximately 14 %, 230 degrees C, and 380 ppm, respectively. This information provides insights into the impact of ethanol concentration by using TBP as a new surfactant material on BTE%, engine exhaust temperature, and NOx concentrations.

Due to the restrictions of the diesel engine emissions and the massive demand of energy, the fossil diesel fuel has been consumed quickly and the resources cannot suffice the demand. Alternative fuels that include bio alcohols, hydrogen and biodiesel can make up the diesel fuel depletion. Biodiesel is convenient for diesel engine operation due to its properties like fossil diesel properties. Response surface methodology is a statistical approach for responses prediction and optimization using definite number of experiments to provide time and cost. This study aims to predict and optimize the performance and emission attributes; of diesel engine has single cylinder and operates at 1400 rpm constant speed fuelled with pure diesel fuel or diesel fuel blended with waste cooked oil (WCO) biodiesel at different blending ratio by using response surface methodology (RSM). The influences of the independent variables that are WCO biodiesel blend percentages and the diesel engine load values on the responses that are predicted and optimized. The WCO biodiesel/ diesel fuel blend percentages are pure diesel fuel without biodiesel (B0), 40% WCO biodiesel with 60% diesel fuel (B40) and 80% WCO biodiesel with 20% diesel fuel (B80). The experiments are performed using diesel engine runs at 1400 rpm constant speed, at varying diesel engine loads are zero, 4 and 8 kW. The design of experiments (DOE) is attempted using central composite design (CCD). The RSM model is a nonlinear model developed according to the independent variables and the responses. The homogeneity between the independent variables is studied to predict and optimize their influences on the diesel engine performance and emission attributes. The RSM model is validated according to the coefficients of regression are R2, R2 adjusted and the R2 predicted that prove the satisfaction of the results. From the experiments it is observed that diesel engine performance and emissions attributes are enhanced by increasing the diesel engine load value and increasing the percentage of WCO biodiesel blending ratio compared to pure diesel only like NOx emissions which reduced from 1200 ppm to 900 ppm at the same engine load due to the reduced combustion temperatures using WCO biodiesel. According to the response optimizer tool, the optimal responses are 17.11% for the BTE, 658.9 ppm for the NOx emissions and 1.93% for CO2 emission at independent variables are 2.6667 kW diesel engine load and 100% pure diesel fuel.

Exploratory research of partially premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) in conjunction with direct fuel injection was done. A single-cylinder commercial diesel engine was used. In this work, the evaluation of the engine vibrations, pollution, efficiency, and combustion properties has been performed on a PCCI diesel-fueled engine. A part of the fuel was converted into vapor inside the intake manifold by using an innovative premixing chamber with an electronic fuel injector. At the same time, the main fuel quantity was injected directly inside the engine cylinder before the top dead center (TDC) to control the engine phasing. A unique approach based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the cylinder vibration data was applied for combustion vibrations and acoustic investigation. To further clarify their relationship, the influence of combustion characteristics on acoustic and vibrations metrics was investigated. The results demonstrate that combustion noise remains a crucial issue for adopting this novel combustion approach in the automotive industry. The studies revealed that partial premixing reduces nitrogen oxide (NO X ) pollutants significantly. This is thought to be the outcome of the PCCI combustion, which occurs before the typical mixing controlled phase, lowering regional gas temperatures. The experiment findings also revealed that partial premixing has an intrinsic tradeoff between NO X emissions and inefficient combustion products (carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs)). It was also shown that incomplete combustion and non-optimized spontaneously igniting of the premixed charge resulted in a minor reduction in combustion efficiency (CE).

Direct Dual Fuel Stratification (DDFS) is a new low-temperature combustion (LTC) approach that employs dual fuel direct injection in the combustion chamber. In this method, a relatively small proportion of diesel fuel was pre-injected and utilized to activate the burning of the premixed charge followed by direct injection of a diesel/ ethanol mixture (75% diesel, 25% ethanol by volume) into the combustion chamber near TDC. The DDFS approach generates a lower reactivity charge in the central sector of the combustion chamber and a stronger reactivity charge along the wall. For the examination of combustion vibrations and acoustic, a new technique dependent on the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the cylinder vibration statistics was used. Whereas the PCCI combustion technique is more likely to cause knocking than the typical diesel CI, the results show that charge stratification in DDFS combustion does have a good effect in reducing vibration intensity. Owing to the improved controllability of the start of combustion and burning period, DDFS combustion attained a brake thermal effi-ciency (BTE) of 51%, which was larger than CI and PCCI. DDFS shows ultra-low nitrogen oxide (NOx) (below 1 g/ kW-h), mild carbon monoxide (CO) (below 6 g/kW-h), and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) emissions. Because of the higher thermal efficiency and a decreased carbon source due to presence of ethanol, DFFS combustion could produce lower CO levels by up to 34% when compared to PCCI.

Due to its significant contribution to reducing pollution and crude oil use, bioethanol has been ranked as the most extensively used biofuel globally. Bioethanol was classified as a new and renewable source of fuel, which can be used as an oxygenated fuel blend for both of gasoline and diesel engines. In this work, the optimization process for bioethanol production and utilization has proceeded by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Bioethanol production parameters such as temperature, pH, and their combined impact on bioethanol% and residual sugar have been studied. For process optimization, Box-Behnken design (BBD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) was used. For predicting bioethanol l% and residual sugar, a quadratic regression model was developed with coefficients of determination R2 of (0.9984) and (0.9883), respectively. The obtained results show that after 118.54 h, 9.33 W/V inoculum size, 31.66 degrees C, and 4.86 pH, bioethanol % increased to 3.5-fold to become16.92% and a minimum residual sugar concentration of 0.50 mg/ml are achieved. Also, bioethanol% and residual sugar was 16.92% and 0.50 mg/ml, respectively. However, the central composite design approach (CCD) has used to optimize the engine operating parameters were optimized to obtain the highest possible break thermal efficiency BTE% and lowest NOx emissions for a single-cylinder DI-engine running on a blend of 50% biodiesel/50% diesel combined with 10&20% bioethanol. Also, the analysis of variance was revealed by the examination of incon-sistency were statistically significant. According to RSM optimizer data, the optimum NOx and BTE values were 83.72 ppm and 23.68%, respectively, at the highest concentration of bioethanol blend of 14.65% and break power of 3.21 kW.

Nowadays, researchers are very interested in improving the stability and solubility of blending diesel fuel with a high percentage of ethanol. As a result, the goal of this paper was to find a way to use the surfactant of Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) substance to blend ethanol with diesel fuel to a level of 40%. Diesel fuel is mixed with ethanol in volumetric proportions of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%, as well as a tiny amount of TBP from 1 to 4%. The prepared blends were the subject of an experiment evaluation by fueling a direct injection diesel engine. This engine is a water-cooled, commercial diesel engine, single cylinder, and four-stroke with 12 kW maximum power. The four blends were evaluated as clean fuel mixtures of 10% ethanol/90% diesel/1% TBP, 20% ethanol/80% diesel/2% TBP, 30% ethanol/70% diesel/3% TBP, and 40% ethanol/60% diesel/4% TBP. As the starting fuel, we used 100% diesel to compare the results. The engine’s output and emissions have been measured at various engine loads and constant speeds of 1500 rpm. According to the data gathered, even when the percentage of ethanol was increased to 40%, neither the base fuel nor the engine BTE changed significantly. The engine exhaust gas temperature was found to decrease slightly when the proportion of ethanol was increased. When bioethanol is increased to 40% of the base volume, it causes an increase in the combustion of unburned hydrocarbons and CO emissions. However, when the percentage of ethanol was increased from 100% diesel to the base fuel to 40%, CO2 emissions decreased, and O2 emissions slightly increased.

Biodiesel produced from waste cooked oil (WCO) resources mixed with various nanoparticle additives and used as a fuel blend in diesel engine combustion is a hopeful research trend. All previous studies indicate that alternative fuels can provide better fuel properties with enhanced engine combustion, performance, and lower emissions than fossil diesel fuel. This study uses three fuel blends to compare the diesel engine’s combustion, performance, and emissions attributes at different loading values. Pure diesel fuel, B40, which is a blend of 40% WCO biodiesel and 60% diesel fuel, and mixtures of 40% WCO biodiesel, 56% diesel, and 4% toluene with carbon nanotubes (B40-CNTs) or graphene oxide nano-additive (B40-GO) at three concentrations of 50, 100, and 150 ppm were used. The results show enhancements in the diesel engine attribute values using B40-CNTs and B40-GO blends at different concentrations and engine load values better than the diesel engine attribute result values using B0 or B40 without nanoparticle additives. The combustion, performance, and emission attribute showed improvements using nanoparticles due to the increase in the evaporation rate, the oxygen rate, the surface area to volume ratio, and the thermal properties of the mixture. The highest in-cylinder peak pressure is recorded at 61 bar in B40 with 150 PPM of GO nanoparticles. The brake thermal efficiency records 43.6%, with the highest percentage found using B40-150GO at the maximum engine load value. The NOx emissions are dropped from 1240 PPM using pure diesel fuel to 884 PPM using B40 with 150 PPM of GO nanoparticles at the maximum engine load due to the lower combustion temperatures and duration.

The concept of a highly premixed dual fuel triple-direct-injection (TDI) combustion model aimed at providing adjustable in-cylinder stratified charge from two distinctive fuels, ethanol and diesel fuels, is presented.

The work focuses on studying the solubility and stability of dissolved bioethanol as a fuel additive in different fuel blends of gasoline, diesel, 50% diesel/50% biodiesel. Dissolved ethanol fuel appears as particles with a unique size distribution inside the whole fuel blends, and its stability was measured in this work. Bioethanol dissolved fuel particles stability was improved after blending the bioethanol with 50% diesel/50% biodiesel than pure diesel or pure gasoline fuel alone. The obtained results reveal that the lowest bioethanol particles stability was obtained when commixed with gasoline and the suspended ethanol particles completely accumulated at different concentrations of bioethanol in the fuel blends of 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, and 12% by volume after 1 h of mixing time. Furthermore, the measured data of the bioethanol particles size distribution reveals that the suspended stability in the diesel blend improve slightly for all bioethanol concentrations of 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% by volume. While the bioethanol concentrations of 5% show acceptable particles stability and size distribution during the whole experiments time. Obtained results show that bioethanol suspended particles stability was enhanced for 50% diesel/50% biodiesel blend with different bioethanol concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% by volume basis. However, the size of the particles increased as the bioethanol concentration rose with the passage of time.

The experimental investigation was carried out to find the combustion and emissions performance of an industrial burner fuelled with five different types of fuel diesel D100%, waste cooking oil biodiesel B100%, D50%B50% blends, and additive 'THERMOL-D' added in biodiesel B100% and conventional diesel D100%. The outcome indicates a decline as compared to diesel fuel. While the experimental findings indicate that under various operating conditions, both NOx emission and the maximum flame temperature have increased. However, surfactant, demulsified, lubricity enhancer, dispersion, cetane improver, antioxidant, and combustion catalyst are just a few of the ingredients in 'THERMOL-D,' a new hydrocarbon-based multipurpose fuel additive. By mixing THERMOL-D additives with pure diesel D100% and pure biodiesel B100%, all combustion characteristics and emissions of the industrial burner are significantly improved. The CO, HC, soot, and NO and NO2 emissions levels decreased and the maximum flame temperature and exhaust flame temperature dramatically increased. According to the results, additional diesel and biodiesel additives reduced CO, HC, soot and NOx by (about 75% and 100%), (about 65% and 75%), (about 60% and 75%) and (about 25% and 45%), respectively. In addition to increasing the maximum flame temperature (about 6% and 15%), respectively. compared to diesel.

In this study, biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil (WCO) was mixed with the commercial diesel#1 at a ratio of 50:50 % (B50) each by volume basis. Effect of adding different concentrations of the nanocomposite {[Cu-I(CN)(2)(phen)_Cu-II(CN)(2)(phen)]_5H(2)O}/Ag}; SCP1 to B50 is also studied at different engine loads and fixed engine speed of 1400 RPM. The tested blend fuels were pure diesel, B50, B50 + 50 ppm SCP1, B50 + 100 ppm SCP1, and B50 + 150 ppm SCP1. Parameters of engine performance such as brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) were also investigated. Moreover, the impacts of adding SCP1 on the emission characteristics of UHC, CO, CO2, and NOx were also investigated. Different engine performance and emissions results were examined at a constant rotational engine speed of 1400 rpm with different engine loads. Results from the experiments showed that the SCP1 addition led to a substantial enhancement in engine performance and emissions. The obtained results elucidated that when using 150 ppm of SCP1, BSFC decreased by 13.1% in contrast with the B50, accompanied by an increase in BTE by 12.5%. There has also been a rise in exhaust gas temperatures as a sign of improved combustion behaviors inside the engine cylinder. The results revealed that the UHC emissions also reduced by 17.8% in contrast with the B50, owing to improved combustion process. There has been an increase in carbon dioxide by 19.65% and nitrogen oxides emissions by 23.3% respectively in contrast with the B50 because of oxygen content in biodiesel, while there was no improvement in CO emissions.

The objective of this study is to explore various strategies i.e. reactivity stratification, thermal stratification, injection timing, and exhaust gas recirculation as key factors for prolonging the PCCI/RCCI/DDFS engine operational spectrum and suppressing the ringing intensity. Since most of the current motivating strategies can be lumped into the category of premixed Low-Temperature-Combustion (LTC), the potential of this paper is to demonstrate the robustness of LTC in addressing several challenges related to premixed charge compression ignition engine, viz., lack of phasing regulation of combustion at heavy engine loads and excessive pressure rises. With a premixed preparation strategy, however, emission species are seen to decrease, yet the challenges of pre-combustion charge preparation are present. This can deduct a noticeable extent of fuel energy. To avoid the steep trend of pressure rise problem that restricts LTC engines with their operating range, higher levels of fuel blending and regulating the timing of auto-ignition are used. This review demonstrates the ongoing progress in premixed LTC techniques aim to control of nitrogen oxides (NOx), reduction of particulate matter (PM), and hydrocarbon (HC). In comparison to normal LTC operation, the duel fuel charge stratification might increase indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) by 5% to 7% across the survey. For various charge compositions, tests were made in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI). These results are provided and analyzed in comprehensive detail, with extensive correlations to model predictions and a thorough kinetic analysis. Furthermore, injection strategies were reviewed to accomplish highly efficient preparation of the combustion charge, reduce the combustion environment temperature, and enhance premixing. By highlighting relevant components of this rich and quickly growing field of knowledge, this study aims to give an insight to and summary of current studies on LTC combustion. As a result, this document serves as a fundamental collection of information and recommendations on the current state of combustion research on various fuels.

Due to the emissions restrictions and the speeding requirements for energy in different sectors, diesel and gasoline can't be able to face the rapid supply of internal combustion engines. The direction for using the renewable fuel resources partially or entirely in place of fossil diesel fuel becomes inevitable due to the availability, accepted environmentally and competitive. Alternative fuels have excellent usage as fuel without any modifications in the diesel engines. Alternative fuels can dampen combustion temperature, decreasing all emission percentages compared to using fossil diesel only. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel and one of the alternative fuels used as a blend for operating diesel engines. Its importance is in decreasing the brake specific fuel consumption and increasing the brake thermal efficiency. Nanoparticle additives are blended with diesel fuel and its alternatives in compression ignition engines to increase the surface contact area, increase the oxidation of fuels, provide short ignition delay, improve the engine performance attributes, and decrease engine emissions. Response surface methodology is a computer application used to design, predict and optimize the response variables according to the input variables. Response surface methodology is used in many applications in industrial fields to predict the performance and quality of products due to its accuracy in the responses and time consuming. The present paper reviews the importance of using response surface methodology in predicting the optimum performance and emission characteristics for diesel engines fuelled with blends of diesel, alternative fuels, and nano-particle additives. It is accomplished that the comparison between the experimental and the modeling by response surface methodology is similar.

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) seems to be a critical parameter in developed RCCI operations for controlling emissions, in-cylinder charge reactivity as well as combustion phasing. The most advantages of utilizing the RCCI burning technique are the simultaneous decrease of PM as well as NOx emissions. Nevertheless, significant challenges remain, such as extreme HC and CO emissions. The purpose of this work is to investigate the effects of external, hot, and high-pressure EGR as well as different DI-Fuels on RCCI combustion under various load conditions. The tests were performed on direct injection, single-cylinder, and four-stroke modified diesel engine (peak power 5 KW under 1500 rpm) operating in RCCI mode with an EGR system. To initiate ignition, high reactivity fuel (biodiesel/diesel blends) was injected directly inside the engine's cylinder whereas low reactivity fuel (LPG) was induced into to intake mixing chamber. EGR at various ratios (30%, 20%, and 10%) was introduced into the engine via the intake mixing chamber, and experiments were done under various loads. The results show that increasing EGR results in a slight increment in BTE under medium and high engine loads. NOx emissions from diesel engines operating in traditional RCCI mode declined dramatically, and they decreased even further with the addition of EGR. The CO and HC emission levels, on the other hand, are slightly greater when EGR is used. Increasing the proportion of biodiesel in DI-Fuel is resulting in a decrement in BTE and NOx emissions in addition to an increment in BSFC, CO, and HC emissions.

Biojet fuels have great potential for decreasing the reliance on fossil-based jet fuels and to decrease CO2 emissions. The International Air Transport Association reported that using sustainable sources like biomass to produce biojet fuels is a promising strategy to develop and industrialize an alternative aviation fuel to allow sustainable growth in the aviation sector. Biojet fuels chemical compositions have a significant impact on their performance characteristics. The main performance characteristics of biojet fuel are thermal oxidation stability, the biobased jet fuels compatibility with the current system of aviation, low-temperature fluidity, combustion characteristics, fuel metering, and fuel volatility. These characteristics have been evaluated by the American Society for Testing and Materials standards. The conversion technologies of biobased feedstock can be classified as alcohol to jet, sugar to jet, oil to jet, and gas to jet. Hydrogenated esters and fatty acids, hydrogenated esters, and catalytic hydrothermolysis are the common pathways for biojet fuel production. The impact of biojet fuels delivered from different feedstocks, including algae, on jet engine performance was the focus of researchers using numerical modeling and virtual simulation. Researchers found that the thermodynamic behavior, fuel consumption level of the aircraft, and emissions characteristics are improved using biojet fuel compared with the conventional jet-A fuel. The mean focus of the current chapter is to summarize the most available studies of the algae-based biojet fuels conversion technologies, characteristics, performance, and process simulation.

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been one of the essential aspects to manage combustion phasing, in-cylinder reactivity, performance, and emissions in innovative RCCI engine operation. In this review, the effect of EGR on RCCI engine operations is reviewed and different techniques to employ EGR are discussed. Generally, RCCI engine operation needs EGR support, especially at high engine loads to limit the pressure increase rate, and around 50 percent of EGR may be essential based on fuel used and engine load. The RCCI combustion engine needs a substantially low EGR rate since the rate of burning is regulated by altering the mixture reactivity by employing two fuels having significantly varied reactivity. RCCI operation with cooled EGR yielded lower pressure rise rate, cyclic variation, and NOx emissions but greater THC emissions than hot EGR operation. Internal EGR and lower pressure of intake air achieved generally greater net indicated efficiencies and reduced emissions than that of the conventional RCCI combustion at low loads. At high load, the internal EGR mode is required to be turned off to minimize fuel efficiency loss. The higher EGR percentage has more benefits on extending maximum load and lowering soot and NOx emissions, whereas the combustion and indicated thermal combustion efficiencies decline to utilize higher EGR percentage. Thus, to accomplish the greater performance and efficient process of combustion, the collaborated regulation is important between EGR rate, premixed ratio, and direct-injection timing.

Waste cooking oil biodiesel is considered a common way to generate clean energy in all countries. It can be used efficiently, like fossil fuel quality. To overcome the problem of poor combustion, an increase in the NOx and unburned hydrocarbon emissions, liquid, or solid additives were commonly used to improve combustion and emissions properties. In this study, the Cyclohexane (C6H12) as volatile organic and the flammable liquid compound has been applied as a micro additive for B60D40 fuel blends. Its effect on diesel engine combustion, performance, and emissions has been experimentally investigated. The C6H12 added into the diesel/biodiesel blends at different concentrations of 5, 10, and 15 % by volume basis. Two values of injection pressure have tested experimentally at different Cyclohexane concentrations. The experiment activity changed the fuel injection pressure of 150 and 250 bar, respectively, while the WCOB blends of B60D35c5, B60D30c10, and B60D25c15 have been used. The obtained results have been compared with the commercial diesel#1 and B60D40 fuel blends, respectively. The measured data show that the Cyclohexane additives dramatically improve engine emissions as well as engine performance. The CO, HC, and smoke density have decreased by increasing the Cyclohexane dose as a flammable additive. The NOx emission was reduced by increasing the C6H12 due to the fast combustion process and enhancing the premixed combustion period. Moreover, the increased injection pressure from 150 bars to 250 bars reduces the engine BSFC, HC, CO, NOx, smoke density, increasing engine BTE, CO2 emissions, and exhaust gas temperature.

The traditional combustion mode which utilized in the DI diesel engine has high and excessive emissions so the most wanted combustion is creating new modes which produce low combustion temperatures and low emissions. The main objective of the research is executing combustion, performance, and emissions attributes for PCCI-DI engine using blends of biodiesel and commercial diesel fuel blends for reducing the reactivity of the waste cooked oil and fossil diesel fuel mixtures. In this investigation, the waste cooked oil biodiesel is mixed with pure diesel fuel to formulate two blends by volume are 20% biodiesel 80% diesel (B20D80) and the other is 40% biodiesel 60% diesel (B40D60). The PCCI-DI engine methodology is activated after running the engine traditionally with direct injection for keeping stable running and prevents cold starting. The PCCI-DI operation insures that the charged mixture of a certain fraction of the supplied fuel is vaporized outside the engine manifold and the rested fuel quantity is conventionally burned before the TDC. However, the fuel blends that vaporized are adjusted at different premixed ratios at 20%, 25% and 30%, in that orders. The present investigation shows upgrades in all engine attributes. The obtained results of PCCI-DI technique at different premixed ratios shows a certain reduction for the peaks of the in-cylinder pressure, reduction in apparent heat release, rising in average brake thermal efficiency from 19.34% at conventional direct injection to 29.91% at PR3. In addition, reduction in average CO emission from 0.324% to 0.083% and reduction in average NOx from 559.3 PPM to 150.5 PPM.

Recently, research organizations and researchers have been working on finding and producing clean and alternatives to fuels such as biofuels, and thus using new technologies to reduce harmful emissions such as nanoparticle technology. In this regard the use of heterogeneous catalyst for producing biodiesel is classified as a new promising technology as of its characterization for saving in the production total cost. Heterogeneous transesterification reaction is applied to change the waste cooking oil WCO triglycerides to methyl esters with applying lower concentration of alcohol, while the yielded biodiesel has fitted the ASTM norms. In the current investigation, the maximum biodiesel yield obtained was 95% at optimal reaction conditions of 60 min reaction time, 60 °C reaction temperature, 0.01 mass% TiO2 nano-catalyst, 0.3 mass% NaoH, and 1:10 V/V% oil to methanol percentage. Also, the influence of diesel, biodiesel blend, and Cadmium (II)-Based supramolecular coordination polymer nano-additives, {[Cd (EIN)2(SCN)2]}, SCP 1, on the performance and emissions of DI diesel engine were studied experimentally by varying the engine load at 1400 rpm. While the obtained results show a great reduction in UHC, CO, and NOx emissions with increasing the SCP 1 nanomaterials. However, the CO 2 emissions show a unique increase in its value by adding SCP 1 as a nanoparticle. If 70 ppm of SCP 1 is used the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) has reached 31.2% as associated with the tested fuels. Also, temperature of the engine exhaust (EGT) was analyzed for all tested fuels, where a consequent reduction was observed.

The influence of diesel/biodiesel blends on engine combustion, performance, and exhaust gas emissions have carried out experimentally at different engine loads and constant speed of 1400 rpm. Volumetric percentage of diesel/biodiesel blends: D70B30 (70% diesel-30% biodiesel), D50B50 (50% diesel-50% biodiesel) and D30B70 (30% diesel-70% biodiesel) were prepared to power a single cylinder diesel engine. The engine results as compared to diesel fuel, show a reduction in the rate of change of CO by 33.8% for D50B50. The slight decrease in maximum cylinder pressure for higher percentage of biodiesel blends due to low calorific value of biodiesel and lower ignition delay. The reduction in HRR for biodiesel blends as compared to diesel fuel. HRR was about 31.7, 52.4 and 63.5 (J/deg) for 10%, 30% and 60% of maximum engine power. The highest reduction in HC emissions concerning diesel fuel was about 4.18% for D30B70. NOx emissions of biodiesel blends were higher than diesel. Exhaust oxygen (EO) emissions for D30B70 was about 0.98% higher than diesel. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) has observed for all biodiesel blends. Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is increased until it reaches 11.43% for D30B70. A consequent reduction in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) is observed for all biodiesel blends.