The overarching scientific goal of this study was to evaluate the implementation and validation of a quantitative laboratory method for analyzing drinking water in a citizen science project. By comparing the data of complexometric titrations performed by a group of citizens (n = 122) with those performed by a group of experts (n = 18) using the same method, we showed that the water hardness obtained by the citizens was similar to that obtained by the experts. In this semiexperimental study, the citizens, despite working less precisely than experts, achieved measurements that were comparably true to those made by experts when they repeated their individual measurements. An alternative method utilizing a visual marker was successfully introduced to support the citizens in reading the burette. The data of a second group of citizens (n = 79) indicated minor improvements in overall accuracy. The presented findings outline a useful procedure for implementing and validating chemical laboratory methods in citizen science projects that could also be used in educational contexts. Furthermore, this study underlines the importance of multiple measurements when working with citizens in a science project, especially when chemical laboratory methods are used.

Safely managed drinking water is of utmost importance. Citizen scientists have been successful in collecting water monitoring data worldwide. However, in these projects, test strips or colorimetric assays have usually been used. The implementation of laboratory methods within a citizen science project could confer both benefits and risks regarding the data collected. We, therefore, compared citizen scientists’ data collected using either a colorimetric method or a spectrophotometric method. The citizen scientists’ data (n = 456) were evaluated by comparing these data with reference data obtained from external laboratory analyses. Citizen scientists’ colorimetric data were highly correlated and showed a moderate percentage agreement with the reference data (percentage agreement: 60%; Spearman r = 0.671). The percentage agreement was, however, poor for drinking water samples that contained larger amounts of copper when the citizen scientists used a colorimetric method. Data from the same samples obtained by the citizen scientists using a spectrophotometric laboratory method were also compared with the reference data and showed a slightly higher percentage agreement and stronger correlation with the reference data (percentage agreement: 69%; Spearman r = 0.727). The percentage agreement was consistent for samples that contained different amounts of copper when the citizen scientists used a spectrophotometric method. The data indicated that citizen science projects could improve data quality by involving citizen scientists in laboratory work.

Understanding scientific practices is fundamental to modern society and to science education. Concepts such as Scientific Reasoning (SR) and the Nature of Science (NOS) are important to operationalize different aspects of these practices. Educational policy organizations and international standards require science education to provide insights into the activities and thought processes of scientists to improve science learning. The implementation of these requirements in the classroom is a challenging goal; videos are effective tools for making aspects of scientific practices visible that often remain hidden from students. Current approaches in science education tend to adopt either an affective-volitional focus by aiming to provide authentic insights into scientific practices or a cognitive focus by promoting student skills in the context of SR or NOS. In this theoretical contribution, we argue for a synergistic integration of these foci. Following this argument, we derived a systematic framework for video development by combining insights from science education with the contextual analysis of science and technology studies and philosophy. With this framework, we aim to open the Black Box of scientific practices while developing videos that systematically address students’ skills and provide authentic insights into scientific research processes. In this article, we present this new systematic framework for video development and provide examples of videos created using this framework for discussion within the scientific community.

This study investigates how different video-based representations of scientific practice and a scientist's thought processes influence public perceptions of credibility - both of the scientist and the research - as well as perceived tentativeness of scientific findings and academic self-efficacy. In an experimental online study with a German general population sample (N = 1,105), four videos depicting bat ecology fieldwork were tested. The videos varied in two factors: representation of scientific practices (cookbook style vs. scientific reasoning style) and portrayal of the scientist's thought processes (science-in-the-making vs. ready-made science). Bat ecology, characterized by nocturnal behavior, complex habitats, and conservation challenges, provides a compelling context for examining the communication of uncertainty. Results show that more elaborate representations - particularly those reflecting scientific reasoning and science-in-the-making-led to higher perceptions of tentativeness. These findings underscore the importance of transparently communicating the epistemic processes of scientific knowledge construction to foster scientific literacy.

Learners' perceived authenticity is related to the design of a learning setting and learning outcomes such as maintained situational interest (MSI). Further, perceived authenticity can be conceptually linked to inquiry-based instruction (IBI) as a design element of learning settings. This study investigates students' perceived authenticity and MSI under two conditions: high and low IBI. Under low IBI, learners were asked to reproduce a standard operation procedure, while high IBI included a research question and an investigation with reaction temperature as the independent variable. The sample comprised n = 263 high school students (age M = 16.48 years) for the two conditions: n(high) = 157 and n(low) = 106. Data were collected via a questionnaire with multidimensional perceived authenticity (location, instructors, methods, and innovation) and MSI (emotional, value-related, and epistemic) scales. The results revealed a higher perceived innovation and an unexpectedly lower MSI for learners under the high IBI condition. Still, a higher perceived innovation led to a positive indirect effect on MSI. This complex relationship between IBI, perceived innovation, and MSI can inform the design of science education practices and leads to questions about further mediating factors between IBI design and learners' MSI.

Supporting students in understanding how scientific knowledge is developed, including its inherent uncertainty, is a key challenge in science education. The research presented here investigated how the formatting of scientific practices and the representation of a scientist’s thought processes influence secondary school student’s perceptions of the scientist’s credibility, the research’s credibility, and the tentativeness of findings. Scientific practices were presented either as cookbook style (research without rationale) or with scientific reasoning style (explaining why each step was taken). The scientist’s thought process was shown authentically (science-in-the-making, with visible deliberations) or canonized (ready-made science, settled steps). Two field studies using bat ecology videos were conducted. In Study 1 (N = 148), students viewed one of four videos corresponding to the experimental conditions. No main effects were found, but perceived tentativeness negatively correlated with both researcher and findings credibility across all conditions. Study 2 (N = 607) was a full-day school intervention with the same four videos in a constructive learning format. A main effect indicated that findings were perceived as more tentative when presented as science-in-the-making. Again, negative correlations between tentativeness and credibility were observed in all conditions. These results inform the design of educational media that realistically portray scientific inquiry and help students develop a nuanced view of science as dynamic and provisional. They also point to a potential trade-off: While authentic representations can foster epistemic insight, they may simultaneously lower perceived credibility.

While prior research shows that motivational regulation (MR) predicts study motivation and academic success, its relations with students' subjective well-being (SWB) are not yet well understood. It can be theoretically assumed that MR and SWB are reciprocally linked over time, but longitudinal evidence is lacking. To advance our understanding of these associations, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal study with 527 university students across one semester. We included frequency of strategy use, situation-specific fit, and application quality as MR components. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses indicate that high SWB serves as a resource for applying MR strategies frequently and with a high quality, while situation-specific fit and application quality can boost SWB over time. These findings provide insight into the interplay between MR and SWB over time, illuminate the role of SWB as a MR precondition, and can help to develop support measures fostering study success and health in higher education. Educational relevance and implications statement This longitudinal study advances our understanding of how three core components of motivational regulation as well as students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation are linked with students' subjective well-being over time. The results indicate that high subjective well-being serves as a resource for applying motivational regulation strategies frequently and with a high quality. The situation-specific fit between regulation strategies that are used and the motivational problems they target, and the application quality of strategy use, in turn, can boost subjective well-being over time. Students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation has a positive impact on subjective well-being over time, and vice versa. In conclusion, developing integrative support programs that foster motivational regulation competencies (e.g., how to select suitable motivational regulation strategies and how to implement these strategies well) as well as skills to master emotional challenges while studying is a valuable pathway for fostering students' learning, success, and health.

Motivational regulation is essential for effective learning when facing obstacles in higher education. Students failing to maintain (or increase) their motivation may be prone to dysfunctional learning behaviors, such as academic procrastination. Frequently, motivational challenges in an academic course of study arise from environmental conditions that should thus foster the need to develop knowledge about motivational regulation strategies. However, research has yet to determine the extent to which motivational regulation strategy knowledge develops over the course of study and whether this knowledge is associated with changes in academic procrastination (as an important example of dysfunctional learning behavior). Thus, we aimed to examine how intraindividual changes in motivational regulation strategy knowledge are related to intraindividual changes in academic procrastination over the course of study. We hypothesized that motivational regulation strategy knowledge would increase across four semesters and that this increase would lead to a decrease in academic procrastination. For this purpose, we used a cohort sequential longitudinal data set with six measurement occasions across four semesters and seven cohorts (which were based on students' university semester at the first measurement occasion) comprising N = 1,344 undergraduate students. On average, motivational regulation strategy knowledge increased significantly over students' course of study. Results of a bivariate latent change score model indicated that positive development in motivational regulation strategy knowledge was associated with a subsequent decrease in academic procrastination, but not vice versa. The findings thus suggest a certain temporal causality, implying that motivational regulation strategy knowledge is relevant for overcoming academic procrastination.

Training of self-regulated learning is most effective if it supports learning strategies in combination with metacognitive regulation, and learners can transfer their acquired metacognitive regulation skills to different tasks that require the use of the same learning strategy (near transfer). However, whether learners can transfer metacognitive regulation skills acquired in combination with a specific learning strategy to the regulation of a different learning strategy (far transfer) is still under debate. While there is empirical evidence that learners can transfer metacognitive regulation between different learning strategies of the same type (e.g., from one cognitive learning strategy to another), whether transfer also occurs between learning strategies of different types is an open question. Here, we conducted an experimental field study with 5th and 6th grade students (N = 777). Students were cluster-randomized and assigned to one of three groups: two experimental groups receiving different training on the metacognitive regulation of a cognitive learning strategy and one control group receiving no training. After training, students worked on two different tasks; after each task, we measured their metacognitive regulation of a resource management strategy, that is, investing mental effort. Results (based on data from 368 students due to pandemic conditions) indicated far metacognitive regulation transfer: After training, students in the training groups were better able to metacognitively regulate their mental effort than students in the control group. Although effect sizes were small, our results support the hypothesis of far transfer of metacognitive regulation.

This study explores how receiving identical information from different sources affects learning and cognitive load, focusing on two types of redundancy: modal redundancy, where redundant information comes from two visual sources (images and written text), and codal redundancy, where redundant information comes from two sources of different modalities which utilize the same symbol system (spoken and written text). Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects design involving modal (yes/no) and codal (yes/no) redundancy, 158 participants completed twenty learning tasks, consisting of ten construction and ten recall tasks. Additionally, they rated their cognitive load by indicating their perceived task difficulty and mental load. Overall, results indicate positive main effects of modal redundancy and negative effects of codal redundancy on learning and cognitive load. Furthermore, significant interaction effects suggest that modal redundancy may counterbalance the negative effects of codal redundancy, implying a compensatory mechanism in cognitive processing for construction tasks. These results highlight the importance of considering both modal and codal redundancy and their interaction in instructional design.

Abstract: Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 ( N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 ( N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 ( N = 234) provided evidence for the scale’s convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.

Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 (N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 (N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 (N = 234) provided evidence for the scale's convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.

Citizen Science is an ever-growing field of public engagement with science, and recent years have seen an increasing number of studies examining its potential. This study reviews this research to determine the educational and scientific outcomes of Citizen Science. A literature search produced 1,240 articles that were subsequently coded according to their main focus. Articles fell into one of three main categories: (a) empirical scientific articles, (b) narrative project descriptions, and (c) theoretical and technical conceptualizations. Hundred and forty-eight studies investigated educational outcomes of participation in Citizen Science such as effects on interest in science or motivation. These studies were examined further to assess the achievement of educational outcomes of Citizen Science. In terms of changing epistemological beliefs, for example, Citizen Science seems to have little effect. Overall, there is currently a lack of empirical studies to assess the educational outcomes comprehensively. In contrast, many empirical scientific articles answered research questions in different scientific disciplines based on Citizen Science data and many studies confirmed a high level of Citizen Science data quality providing information on the scientific outcomes. Implications for future research on Citizen Science are discussed.

Regarding the redundancy effect in multimedia learning environments, more consistency is needed in the theoretical assumptions and investigation of this effect. Current research lacks a comprehensive account of different redundant scenarios in which materials facilitate or inhibit learning and provides little conceptual guidance on how learning processes are affected by different types of redundancy. Theoretical assumptions refer to redundancy as a contentual overlap of information provided by the learning material; in this case, processing duplicated information strains the learners’ limited cognitive capacities. Other assumptions refer to the role of processing limitations in working memory channels, including separate processing for visual and verbal information. In this case, an ineffective combination of sources leads to an overload of the limited working memory capacity. This paper reviews empirical research on the redundancy effect (63 studies) and classifies two types of redundancy: (1) content redundancy , and (2) working memory channel redundancy. From an instructional psychology perspective, the analyses reveal four different implementations of redundant scenarios: (1) adding narration to visualizations, (2) adding written text to visualizations, (3) adding written text to narration, and (4) adding written text to narrated visualizations. Regarding the effects of the two redundancy types within these scenarios, analyses indicate positive effects of content redundancy (affected by learners’ prior knowledge), negative effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding visualizations and written text), and positive effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding narration and written text). Moreover, results point to factors that might moderate the effect of redundancy and illustrate interactions with existing multimedia effects. Overall, this review provides an overview of the state of empirical research and reveals that the consideration of both redundancy types provides further explanations in this field of research.

•Strategy training has a positive effect on transfer of metacognitive strategies.•Combining direct and indirect training did not reveal any differences.•Only a minority of students applied metacognitive strategies.•We conducted a cluster randomized control field study with a large sample.•A first step toward finding ways to promote transfer in self-regulated learning.

BACKGROUND:What is redundancy? While most studies confirm that redundancy is harmful to learning, there are two theoretical approaches to redundancy. The first understands redundancy as a contentual overlap that puts demand on the limited cognitive capacities of the learner. The second understands redundancy as an ineffective combination of sources leading to an overload of the limited working memory modalities.AIMS:Since these theoretical differences are rarely acknowledged in operation, this study proposes a classification of two distinct types of redundancy to compare these experimentally to investigate their possible main and interaction effects. The first type, content redundancy, is concerned with the contentual overlap of information. The second type, modal redundancy, is concerned with the modalities in which the information is displayed.METHODS:We used these two types of redundancy as factors in a 2 × 2 within-subject design, in which we experimentally compared their effects.SAMPLE:University students (N = 46) learned from specifically designed domain-general material which aimed to observe redundancy effects without interference from confounding variables.RESULTS:The results show that content redundancy increases learning outcomes and decreases cognitive load, while modal redundancy decreases learning outcomes and increases cognitive load.CONCLUSION:On the theoretical level, these findings confirm the usefulness to distinguish content redundancy from modal redundancy. On the practical level, the empirical findings of the different effects of the two types of redundancy provide educators with important insights that can improve the design of multimedia learning materials.

Zusammenfassung Die Unterrichtswissenschaft feiert ein Jubiläum – sie erscheint im Jahr 2023 seit 50 Jahren. Dieser Beitrag ist die Einführung für das Jubiläumsheft (Heft 1, 2023). Er stellt zunächst die Gründung der Zeitschrift dar. Anhand der Protokolle der Herausgebersitzungen wird skizziert, wie sich die „Unterrichtswissenschaft“ als Zeitschrift der empirischen Lehr-Lernforschung entwickelt hat und welche Herausforderungen dabei zu bewältigen waren. Abschließend werden die bisherigen Überlegungen der derzeitigen Herausgeber*innen für die Entwicklung der Zeitschrift und der Lehr-Lern-Forschung vorgestellt.

Considering the demanding higher education context, university students are at risk to experience burnout symptoms such as emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy. Theoretical models (e.g., Job Demands-Resources Model) state that burnout symptoms develop over time, vary between individuals, and bear adverse consequences. To date, the temporal development of student burnout symptoms within semesters, inter-individual differences in their development, and the role of their development for academic outcomes like student dropout are understudied. To complement this limited research, we used date of a three-wave longitudinal study with N = 1435 undergraduate students over one semester. First, we modeled unconditional secondorder latent growth curves to examine the initial levels and trajectories of each burnout symptom (emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy). We then modeled conditional second-order latent growth curves to examine whether initial levels and trajectories differed depending on students' sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, study progress, and academic major) and associated with students' intentions to drop out from university. Results indicated a linear increase in student burnout symptoms over the semester. Sociodemographic differences existed in the initial levels of emotional exhaustion and reduced professional efficacy and the trajectories of each symptom. Generally, female, STEM, and higher- and lower- semester students were particularly affected by burnout symptoms. Further, higher initial levels and an increase in each symptom corresponded with higher dropout intentions. Summarizing, the results highlighted that student burnout symptoms increase as the semester progresses, seem more pronounced among certain student groups, and operate as strong predictors for dropout intentions.