A pesar de los beneficios de la actividad física (AF), la mayoría de los jóvenes no cumplen con las recomendaciones de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. La Teoría de la Autodeterminación (TAD) sostiene que el profesorado de Educación Física (EF) juega un papel clave en la promoción de la AF a través de sus conductas motivacionales docentes. Mientras que las conductas de apoyo a las necesidades psicológicas básicas muestran beneficios claros en consecuencias relacionadas con la AF, los efectos de las conductas controladoras siguen siendo inciertos. Por ello, esta revisión sistemática y metaanálisis ha analizado las asociaciones entre las percepciones de los estudiantes sobre las conductas controladoras de los docentes en EF y su intención y niveles de AF, así como posibles diferencias según la edad y el sexo. La revisión ha sido registrada en PROSPERO (CRD42022362459) y se ha realizado siguiendo las directrices PRISMA 2020. Se han realizado búsquedas en PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science y APA PsycNet hasta 2025. Los estudios elegibles han incluido participantes de entre 5 y 19 años, han evaluado conductas controladoras en EF basadas en la TAD y han medido la intención y/o los niveles de AF. Se han realizado metaanálisis de efectos aleatorios, junto con análisis de subgrupos por sexo y una metarregresión sobre la edad. La calidad de los estudios se ha evaluado utilizando la herramienta de Evaluación de Calidad para Estudios de Cohorte Observacionales y Transversales del NIH. De 3.819 registros, se han incluido 16 estudios (n=9.925; edades de 11 a 19 años). El estilo controlador se ha asociado negativamente con la intención de AF (r=–0.14; IC 95%: –0.22, –0.06) y los niveles de AF (r=–0.18; IC 95%: –0.31, –0.06), con una heterogeneidad alta entre los estudios (intención de AF: I2=90,05%; niveles de AF: I2=95,79%), en base a estudios transversales. Los análisis por subgrupos han mostrado tendencias similares en chicos y chicas, sin que el sexo ni la edad hayan moderado estas asociaciones. Los comportamientos controladores en EF se han asociado con la intención y los niveles de AF de los estudiantes, destacando la importancia de minimizar estas prácticas en EF.

Background During the Physical Education Teacher Education Master's program, pre-service teachers begin to shape their (de)motivating teaching styles. Although research with in-service teachers shows that improving these styles enhances students' motivation and learning, little is known about how they are developed during initial teacher education. Aims Grounded in Self-Determination Theory and the circumplex model, this study examined the effects of a training program designed to improve motivating teaching styles while reducing demotivating ones. Samples Two natural cohorts of pre-service Physical Education teachers. An experimental group (n = 28; Mage = 22.96; SD = 1.45; 21.4% female) that received the training and a control group (n = 25; Mage = 23.80; SD = 2.25; 36.0% female) that followed the standard education. Method A quasi-experimental mixed-method design was implemented. The experimental group was assessed at three time points (T1/T2/T3), and the control group at two (T1/T3). Results Between-group differences emerged only for clarifying, which showed a more favorable evolution in the experimental group. Within-group analyses indicated partial and non-uniform changes. Prior to the practicum, the participative approach increased, while demanding and domineering decreased. After the practicum, these changes were not sustained, returning to baseline. Additionally, clarifying and guiding approaches improved across the program, and awaiting declined after the practicum, while attuning and abandoning remained stable. Qualitative findings corroborated these trends, revealing the potential and challenges of applying autonomy-supportive strategies in authentic contexts. Conclusions The results highlight the need for sustained support during practicum, stronger school-university collaboration, and practicum mentor involvement to consolidate lasting motivating teaching approaches.

Desde hace mucho tiempo, se reconoce que las clases de Educación Física (EF) no solo promueven el desarrollo de las habilidades y conductas motoras de los estudiantes, sino que también brindan un valioso contexto para fomentar el aprendizaje social y emocional. A pesar de ello, existe poca investigación que haya explorado las preferencias de aprendizaje social de los estudiantes de EF y su relación con las conductas prosociales. Este estudio tenía por objetivo identificar perfiles diferenciados de estudiantes basados en cuatro preferencias de aprendizaje social en EF (competitiva, cooperativa, afiliativa e individualista) y examinar cómo difieren estos perfiles en conductas prosociales como la empatía, el respeto, la vinculación y el liderazgo. Se administraron cuestionarios validados a 299 adolescentes españoles (50 % chicos; Medad = 13.76). Un análisis de clúster en dos etapas (método de Ward + medias de K) reveló cuatro perfiles diferenciados: (1) preferencia destacadamente competitiva-cooperativa-afiliativa, (2) preferencia moderadamente cooperativa, (3) preferencia moderadamente competitiva-individualista, y (4) preferencia individualista. Una MANCOVA (con el sexo como covariable) mostró que los perfiles que enfatizaban la cooperación y la afiliación exhibieron el nivel más alto de empatía, vinculación y liderazgo, incluso cuando también estaba presente la competitividad. En cambio, el perfil individualista obtuvo las puntuaciones más bajas en todas las dimensiones prosociales. Estos hallazgos destacan el potencial de las actividades de EF cooperativas y afiliativas para fomentar el desarrollo prosocial de los adolescentes. Se anima a los profesores de EF a diseñar tareas que mejoren la colaboración entre iguales y el sentido de pertenencia, al tiempo que minimizan enfoques excesivamente individualistas.

(1) Background: Previous school-based interventions have addressed adolescent health behaviors such as physical activity, screen time, and sleep, but have predominantly targeted these behaviors independently rather than simultaneously. The Erasmus+ project FiTeens developed an integrated intervention combining theoretical content, videos, infographics, and interactive tasks to promote multiple health behaviors concurrently. The objective of the current article is to present the protocol for a school-based intervention study designed to examine the effects of the FiTeens program on adolescents’ physical activity, screen time, and sleep behaviors. We hypothesize that students receiving the FiTeens intervention will demonstrate increased physical activity, reduced screen time, and improved sleep outcomes compared with students in the control group. (2) Methods: Teachers will be introduced to the FiTeens tools prior to delivering the intervention to students in grades 5–9. Students will participate in an eight-week intervention program combining structured lessons and behavior-change challenges. Primary outcomes include changes in physical activity, screen time, and sleep duration and quality. Secondary outcomes include psychological determinants such as motivation and behavioral intentions. Data will be collected at baseline and at 1-, 3-, and 6-month follow-ups and analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. (3) Expected results: The study will evaluate whether the intervention may contribute to improvements in health-related behaviors among adolescents, including increased physical activity, reduced screen time, and improved sleep outcomes. (4) Conclusions: The intervention based on FiTeens tools could have the potential to promote healthier lifestyle behaviors among students by increasing physical activity during leisure time, supporting the effective limitation of screen time and enhancing bedtime routines to improve sleep quality.

This study examined the benefits of a circumplex model-based training program for Physical Education (PE) teachers and their students. Seventeen PE teachers and their students (n = 813) were randomly assigned to the experimental or the control group as part of a three-wave longitudinal design. Improvements in (de)motivating teaching approaches and need-based experiences were found among both teachers and students. Additionally, positive changes were observed in students' outcomes both inside and outside PE classes, as well as in teachers' job-related outcomes. The results underscore the importance of developing motivational training programs not only for improving students' motivational outcomes but also for teachers.

Background: From a traditional categorical perspective, the teacher's overarching styles of autonomy support and structure have been identified as beneficial for students, while control and chaos have been considered detrimental in physical education (PE). Nevertheless, given that not all teaching practices within the same teaching style contribute equally to student learning, the circumplex approach to (de-)motivating teaching styfles, together with the distinctions between need-nurturing and need-enabling versus need-thwarting and need-depriving practices, can help teachers discern which autonomy-supportive and structuring behaviors should be maximized and prioritized, and which controlling and chaotic behaviors should be minimized or avoided. Considering that little is currently known about the distinctive role that each approach may play in PE, there is a need for further research to shed light on how each approach specifically may contribute to need-based experiences (i.e. need satisfaction and frustration) and affective outcomes (i.e. enjoyment, boredom, and Physical Activity (PA) intention) according to the students in PE lessons. Purpose: This study aims to examine the direct and indirect relationships between students' perceptions of the four motivating approaches (i.e. participative and attuning as autonomy-supportive, and guiding and clarifying as structuring) and the four demotivating approaches (i.e. demanding and domineering as controlling, and abandoning and awaiting as chaotic) with their need-based experiences, enjoyment, boredom and PA intention. Method: A convenience sample of 914 students (Mage = 14.86, SD = 0.46; 54% girls), divided into different school grade levels, participated in this cross-sectional study. A path analysis was conducted, such as main analysis of the study. Results: The path analysis model revealed that participative, attuning, guiding, demanding, and awaiting approaches had positive indirect effects on PA intention via need satisfaction and enjoyment. abandoning approach had negative indirect effects on PA intention via need satisfaction and enjoyment. Domineering and abandoning approaches also had negative indirect effects on PA intention via need frustration and boredom. Finally, the clarifying approach had no significant effects. Conclusions: Our results support the assumption that attuning and guiding approaches are more need-nurturing, whereas the participative approach is more need-enabling. Furthermore, domineering and abandoning approaches are more need-thwarting. However, the distinctive nature of clarifying, demanding, and awaiting approaches in PE requires further clarification. Impact statement: This study offers the first model linking eight (de-)motivating teaching approaches with students' motivational processes in PE. The findings show each approach's impact and inform teacher education programs that strengthen effective motivational strategies while limiting harmful practices.

Despite the benefits of physical activity (PA), most young people fail to meet the World Health Organization’s recommendations. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Physical Education (PE) teachers play a pivotal role in promoting PA through their motivational teaching style. While need-supportive behaviors show clear benefits, the effects of controlling teaching behaviors on PA-related outcomes remain unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the associations between students’ perceptions of controlling teaching in PE and their PA intention and PA levels, and explored whether these associations differ by age or sex. The review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022362459) and conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and APA PsycNet up to 2025. Eligible studies included participants aged 5–18 years, assessed controlling teaching behaviors in PE based on SDT, and reported PA intention and/or PA levels. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted, along with subgroup analyses by sex and a meta-regression on age. Study quality was assessed using the NIH Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. Of 3,819 records, 16 studies (n = 9,925; ages 11–19 years) were included. Controlling teaching style was negatively associated with PA intention (r = –0.14; 95%CI: –0.22, –0.06) and PA levels (r = –0.18; 95%CI: –0.31, –0.06), with high between-study heterogeneity (PA intention: I2 = 90.05%; PA levels: I2 = 95.79%), based exclusively on cross-sectional studies. Subgroup analyses showed similar trends for boys and girls. Neither sex nor age moderated these associations. Controlling behaviors in PE were associated with students’ PA intention and PA levels, highlighting the importance of minimizing such practices in PE contexts.

This study aimed to examine the effects of a basketball teaching unit based on the Sport Education Model on students’ meaningful experiences in Physical Education and their perceptions of (de)motivating teaching approaches used by their Physical Education teachers. A total of 102 secondary school students (49 girls; Mage = 13.66, SD = 0.72) participated in a pre-experimental, single group pretest-posttest design. Students completed the Meaningful Physical Education Scale and the Situation-in-School-Physical Education questionnaire before and after an eight-session intervention implemented by a pre-service teacher. Data were analyzed using mixed 2 (Time: pre, post) × 2 (Sex: male, female) MANOVAs and follow-up ANOVAs. The multivariate analyses revealed no significant overall Time × Sex interaction effects for either meaningful PE dimensions or (de)motivating teaching approaches. At the univariate level, significant improvements were observed in social interaction and challenge dimensions of meaningful PE, along with increased perceptions of autonomy-supportive and structuring teaching approaches and reduced controlling and awaiting approaches. However, univariate analyses showed specific sex-related differences: boys reported greater improvements in fun, challenge, and personally relevant learning, whereas girls perceived their teacher as displaying more clarifying behaviors. These findings suggest that the Sport Education Model fosters meaningful and motivating learning environments for both sexes, though the nature of these improvements may vary slightly between boys and girls.

Grounded in Self-Determination Theory and the circumplex model of teaching behaviors, this three-wave study (N = 637 secondary students) analyzed longitudinal, reciprocal, and cross-sectional relations among (de)motivating teaching styles, basic psychological needs (BPN), and student outcomes using a structural equation model. Perceived autonomy-supportive and structuring styles at Time 1 (T1) predicted higher BPN satisfaction at Time 2 (T2), which, in turn, related to more positive experiences and perceived learning in class and greater intention for physical activity beyond class at Time 3 (T3). Conversely, controlling and chaotic styles at T1 were linked to BPN frustration at T2 and poorer outcomes at T3. BPN satisfaction (frustration) at T2 also showed a longitudinal associations with higher (lower) perceptions of autonomy-supportive/structuring, and lower (higher) controlling/chaotic styles at T3. Findings highlight long-term, bidirectional dynamics with implications for teacher education. The findings indicate that teacher training programs should foster autonomy-supportive and structuring styles while reducing controlling and chaotic ones to promote adaptive motivational patterns and improve student outcomes.

Grounded in the circumplex model, this study examined how need-thwarting teaching styles, control and chaos, are combined by Physical Education teachers (as perceived by students) and how these combinations differ in relation to students’ basic psychological needs and motivational outcomes within (experiences and perceived learning) and outside (intention to be physically active) the Physical Education context. A total of 431 Spanish secondary school students (Mage = 14.92; 53% girls) participated. Latent profile analysis identified three profiles: (1) high control—moderate chaos (35%), (2) moderate control—high chaos (9%), and (3) high demanding—low chaos (56%). Mean comparisons revealed that students in the “high demanding—low chaos” profile reported the most adaptive outcomes, including greater autonomy and competence satisfaction, more positive Physical Education experiences, higher perceived learning, and stronger intentions to be physically active. Conversely, the “moderate control—high chaos” profile was linked to the most maladaptive outcomes, characterized by greater basic psychological needs frustration and poorer experiences, learning, and physical activity intentions. The “high control—moderate chaos” profile yielded intermediate results. Overall, findings indicate that chaotic teaching, especially in its abandoning form, was associated with the worst quality of students’ motivation, while a demanding approach may be comparatively less harmful but still detrimental. Teacher training should therefore reduce controlling and chaotic practices and foster autonomy support and structure.

Physical Education (PE) lessons have long been recognized not only for promoting the development of students' motor skills and behaviors, but also as a valuable context for fostering social and emotional learning. Despite this, limited research has explored students' social learning preferences in PE and their associations with prosocial behaviors. This study aimed to identify distinct student profiles based on four social learning preferences in PE (i.e., competitive, cooperative, affiliative, and individualistic) and to examine how these profiles differ in prosocial behaviors, including empathy, respect, relatedness, and leadership. Validated questionnaires were administered to 299 Spanish adolescents (50% boys; Mage = 13.76). A twostep cluster analysis (Ward's method + K-means) revealed four distinct profiles: (1) highly competitive-cooperative-affiliative preference, (2) moderately cooperative preference, (3) moderately competitive-individualistic preference, and (4) individualistic preference. A MANCOVA (with gender as a covariate) showed that profiles emphasizing cooperation and affiliation exhibited the highest levels of empathy, relatedness, and leadership, even when competitiveness was also present. In contrast, the individualistic profile scored the lowest across all prosocial dimensions. These findings highlight the potential of cooperative and affiliative activities in PE to promote adolescents' prosocial development. PE teachers are encouraged to design tasks that enhance peer collaboration and belonging, while minimizing excessively individualistic approaches.

Based on Self-Determination Theory, a recent theory in the educational context introduces an integrative and detailed circumplex model that categorizes teaching styles into eight (de)motivating approaches, depending on their level of directiveness and support or threat to students’ needs. However, the evidence so far on how high directiveness approaches (i.e., guiding, clarifying, demanding, domineering) is limited regarding its potential connection to various (mal)adaptive outcomes in Physical Education, given that Physical Education teachers can adopt different high directiveness approaches for optimal classroom management. The present study aims to examine the differential impact of high directiveness leadership: structuring style (i.e., guiding and clarifying) versus controlling style (i.e., demanding and domineering), on students’ affective outcomes (i.e., enjoyment and boredom). A convenience sample of 697 students (51% girls; Mage = 14.52; SD = 1.45), aged between 12 and 17 years, participated in this cross-sectional study. The results show that enjoyment during Physical Education lessons was positively and significantly predicted by the guiding and clarifying approaches. In contrast, boredom was negatively and significantly predicted by the guiding approach, while the domineering approach positively and significantly predicted boredom. The results emphasized the importance of Physical Education teachers adopting structuring approaches (i.e., guiding and clarifying) and avoiding controlling approaches (i.e., demanding and domineering) to promote adaptive affective outcomes in students.

This study examined whether there are differences in players' and coaches' perceptions of motivational style according to gender and age group. A total of 601 young Spanish water polo players aged 13-18 years (M=14.74; SD=1.36; 69% boys) and their coaches (n=58; 93% male) participated. Both coaches' and players' perceptions of need-supportive and controlling behaviors were measured. The results show that girls perceived lower values than boys in the controlling behaviors of intimidation and excessive personal control. In terms of category, U-14 players perceived significantly higher values for competitive support than U-16 and U-18 players, as well as for relatedness support than U-16 players. On the other hand, U-18 players perceived significantly higher values for negative attention than did U-14 and U-16 players, as well as for intimidation than did U-14 players. However, no significant differences were found in coaches' perceptions of their motivational style according to the age group they coached. These results highlight the importance of reducing controlling behaviors as much as possible and maintaining supportive strategies throughout the players' training period.

Following a cross-sectional design with 554 pre-service physical education teachers (Mage = 25.03 years-old; SD = +/- 4.31; 67.8 % male), this study aimed to identify their motivational and teaching profiles and examine the relationships between them. Four distinct motivational profiles and four teaching profiles emerged. More self-determined motivational profiles were associated with more adaptive teaching profiles. Conversely, less self-determined motivational profiles were linked to less adaptive teaching profiles. These findings underscore the importance of fostering self-determined motivation in teacher education programs to promote more motivating teaching approaches and better student outcomes.

The recent arrival of the circumplex model to the sport context has provided a more comprehensive conceptualisation of coaches' (de)motivating styles, by subdividing them into different coaching approaches. However, empirical evidence about the motivational roots that may lead coaches to such coaching approaches is currently lacking. This study examines the associations between coaches' motivational processes (basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration, and motivation quality) and their (de)motivating coaching approaches. Participants were 387 futsal coaches (Mage = 35.66 years; SD = 10.62; mean coaching experience = 11.07 years), who responded to a set of online questionnaires assessing the target variables. Results from structural equation modelling, adjusted for coaches' experience and competitive level, showed that coaches' need satisfaction positively predicted autonomous motivation for coaching, which, in turn, positively predicted participative, attuning, guiding, and clarifying approaches. Both coaches' need satisfaction and frustration positively predicted controlled motivation, which positively related to demanding and domineering approaches. Controlled motivation was also shown to negatively predict coaches' reliance on attuning practices. Finally, coaches' need frustration positively predicted amotivation, which, in turn, positively predicted domineering, abandoning, and awaiting approaches. These findings provide further insight into the motivational antecedents that relate to coaches' use of specific (de)motivating approaches to guide their players in trainings and competitions. Coaches who are passionate about coaching and see the value of it are more likely to adopt a more motivating style, while coaches with low-quality reasons for coaching or who have no energy for it are more prone to rely on demotivating styles.

Physical Education Teacher Education is crucial, as it directly influences how pre-service Physical Education teachers will teach, motivate, and engage their future students. However, training programs that foster motivating teaching styles while minimizing demotivating ones remain scarce, particularly during initial teacher education. This study presents the protocol for a non-randomized controlled trial evaluating a motivational-based training program for pre-service Physical Education teachers, grounded in Self-Determination Theory and the circumplex model. The program, embedded in a Master’s in Physical Education Teacher Education, consists of theoretical and practical training to foster motivating teaching styles and minimize demotivating ones. The study will involve at least 38 pre-service teachers, divided into an experimental group (n = 19) and a control group (n = 19). The experimental group will participate in a 14-hour training program combining theoretical and practical components. The control group will follow the standard Physical Education Teacher Education curriculum. A quasi-experimental pre-post design with a mixed-methods approach will be used. Quantitative assessments will measure changes in perceived competence, motivation for teaching, and (de)motivating teaching styles, while qualitative focus groups will provide in-depth insights into participants’ experiences and program applicability. To ensure objectivity, independent researchers will conduct assessments, and external experts will moderate the focus groups. Findings will contribute empirical evidence on the effectiveness of Self-Determination Theory-based interventions in initial teacher education, informing curriculum development and supporting the advancement of evidence-based pedagogical training in Physical Education.Clinical trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT06924554.

This study aims to test the longitudinal and reciprocal associations between autonomous and controlled motivation with physical activity (PA) behavior in children. These relationships were also inspected separately between boys and girls. A three-wave longitudinal study involving 502 children from primary school aged 9-11 years (Mage = 11.12; SD = 1.19; 160 boys [Mage = 10.53; SD = .53] and 131 girls [Mage = 10.49; SD = .53]), taking measures of each variable at three different times during nine months, was employed. Results indicated that boys' and girls' autonomous motivation was positively associated with higher PA behaviors over time. Furthermore, boys' and girls' controlled motivation was positively related with PA only at Time 2 (T2); however, it was negatively related only in girls at Time 3 (T3). Also, higher PA behaviors perceived by boys and girls at Time 1 (T1) showed a positive relationship with autonomous motivation at T2, as well as PA (only perceived with boys) at T2 and autonomous motivation at T3. Only PA at T1 showed a positive and significant relationship with controlled motivation at T2 in boys. To conclude, children who are autonomously motivated tend to sustain their participation in PA longitudinally, and vice versa; those children motivated by controlled factors are promoted to exhibit diminished interest in such activities over time.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has been widely used to understand how different teaching styles impact student outcomes. Previous research has mainly focused on the negative effects of controlling teaching, while the influence of chaotic (laissez-faire) teaching has been less explored. This study examines how students' perceptions of highly chaotic (i.e., abandoning) and highly controlling (i.e., domineering) teaching approaches are related to the satisfaction and frustration of student basic psychological needs in secondary physical education (PE). The study involved 916 students in Belgium (58% girls; 15.37 +/- 1.62 years old) and 1124 students in Spain (52% girls; 14.60 +/- 1.51 years old). Using linear mixed-effects models, we found that both abandoning and domineering teaching approaches were adversely associated with students' basic psychological needs. The abandoning approach showed the strongest positive association with overall need frustration in both samples. Moreover, the abandoning approach was most strongly associated with competence and relatedness frustration in both countries, as well as with lower competence satisfaction in Spain. Both approaches showed a similar positive relationship with autonomy frustration. This study expands our understanding of demotivating teaching by demonstrating the harmful potential of highly chaotic teaching, beyond the well-known harmful effects of controlling teaching. The consistency of the findings across both countries highlights the international relevance of this research. These findings suggests that reducing highly chaotic (i.e., laissez-faire) teaching should be a priority in international educational practices and policies. Future research could investigate the causes, effects, and potential moderators of chaotic teaching to further guide educational policy and practice in different cultural contexts.