The present paper aims to honor the memory of one of the most notable figures in psychological science over the past five decades, Philip G. Zimbardo, who sadly passed away in late 2024. To this end, we provide a multi-perspective view on psychological time-a topic that deeply engaged Phil Zimbardo during the later stages of his prolific career. From the basic mechanisms of mental time travel to the experience of the passage of time, the phenomena of temporal construal, intertemporal choices, and complex representations of future selves, as well as the concepts of balanced time perspectives and temporal metacognition, the authors of this article construct this symbolic memoir by linking their own ideas and research with Zimbardo's time perspective theory. In the concluding part of the paper, we propose that temporality-related processes and traits constitute a fundamental part of personality and seek to highlight the pathways through which considering psychological-temporal phenomena may advance personality science and even serve as a unifying theme for various approaches to personality.

The widely replicated finding that time passage over the past decade is perceived as faster by older adults was the focus of this study. We investigated potential factors associated with this effect, examining the role of autobiographical memory and cognitive functioning. One hundred and twenty individuals aged 20–91 years were assessed on subjective time perception for the preceding decade and year, the quantity and significance of autobiographical memories from those periods, and overall cognitive status. Results confirmed the specific age-related effect concerning a faster time passage over the past decade. However, no significant association was found between perceived time passage over the past decade and either the number or subjective value of memories. Contrary to assumptions, older adults reported more vivid and meaningful recollections. Instead, reduced cognitive functioning, and specifically lower ability to form new memories as assessed through delayed memory recall, emerged as significantly linked to faster time perception with older age. Findings suggest that age-related cognitive decline leading to reduced ability to encode novel memories, rather than diminished autobiographical memory content, is a critical factor in the subjective experience of time compression in older adults.

The Quality of Digital Experience Scale (QDES) and the Immersion in Digital Life Scale (IDLS) were developed to measure positive and negative experiences of digital technology use and the extent to which different facets of life were digital. Critically, the QDES and ILDS were developed to be independent of digital device or platform, thus providing a more holistic account of digital technology use than previous measures. The objective of the current studies was to validate the QDES and IDLS in German, French, Czech, Polish and Spanish. Across the studies, data from a total of 4,447 participants were analyzed. Confirmatory Factor Analyses confirmed a three-factor model for the QDES consisting of Wellbeing, Social Connectedness and Time and Efficiency. The IDLS was also confirmed as having a single factor structure. Reliability and validity analysis indicated that the QDES and IDLS showed good reliability and validity in all countries. The present study confirms that the QDES and IDLS offer reliable measurements of individuals’ interactions with technology in the digital era. By extending the validation of these measures beyond English, to German, Polish, Czech, French and Spanish, we expand researchers and policy makers abilities to establish the positive and negative impacts of digital practices on individuals and societies.

Flow experience is characterized by becoming deeply absorbed in a task, by losing track of time, and diminished self-awareness. Psychological flow research typically involves the qualitative or quantitative assessment of flow states after the experience with questionnaires. This approach is limited, as post-task reports provide an overall assessment of the whole experience, but lack the temporal resolution required to analyze together with psychophysiological data and fail to capture flow as it unfolds in real time. We introduce a novel method that enables the continuous and real-time subjective measurement of flow. Forty participants indicated their perceived degree of flow by pressing a custom-made foot pedal (i.e., real-time report) while they engaged in a flow-inducing activity (i.e., playing the video game Thumper in virtual reality). They played the game under two conditions, one with the pedal and one without, while electrocardiogram (ECG) signals were recorded. After each condition, participants completed the validated Flow Short Scale (FSS) as a post-task report. Results support the hypotheses that interacting with the pedal did not interfere with: (a) participants' flow experience as measured with the FSS, (b) heart-rate variability (HRV), and (c) the pedal provided a reliable self-assessment of flow, as indicated by the correlation between real-time and post-task flow ratings. HRV analyses revealed evidence for associations between the high-frequency (HF)-HRV, the low-frequency (LF)/HF ratio, and perceived flow, suggesting that parasympathetic activity and autonomic balance may play a role in the flow experience. In conclusion, this proposed novel empirical method enables assessment of the temporal evolution of a flow experience and its potential links to psychophysiological indicators extending beyond HRV.

In this study, we utilized two newly developed and psychometrically validated instruments—the Immersion in Digital Life Scale (IDLS) and the Quality of Digital Experience Scale (QDES)—to investigate the relationships among Immersion in Digital Life (IDL), the Quality of Digital Experiences (QDE), individual Temporal Focus (TF), and the subjective Passage of Time (PoT). The study sample comprised 7536 participants across six European countries. Our findings indicate that a higher IDLS score and a higher QDES score are associated with an accelerated PoT. Our results revealed that a higher Future Temporal Focus (TF-Future) is related to an accelerated PoT. Moreover, there is an indirect effect of TF-Future on PoT via IDLS and the dimension Time and Efficiency of QDES. Specifically, individuals with a stronger TF-Future tend to engage in digital life to a greater extent and experience its beneficial effects, which in turn contributes to a faster subjective experience of time. Country-level differences emerged: participants in Poland reported the highest levels of IDL and the fastest PoT, while individuals in the United Kingdom exhibited the strongest Past Temporal Focus (TF-Past) and the slowest PoT. The results shed more light on the consequences of digital usage on time perception.

Flow, the state of absorption in an activity, has typically been assessed through retrospective self-reports. This method provides only a broad summary of the subjective experience and cannot capture its temporal dynamics as the experience develops. In our prior work (Genc et al., 2026), a real-time measurement approach was introduced, using a custom-designed foot pedal. Continuous pedal angle data served as a proxy for perceived flow, correlating with post-task Flow Short Scale (FSS) scores. The present study extends this method by examining the temporal dynamics of flow during 40-minute sessions of the virtual reality game Thumper. Participants (N = 35) continuously reported their perceived flow levels using the pedal while electrocardiogram (ECG) signals and game performance were recorded concurrently. Results provided further evidence for the validity of the method, with a positive association observed between pedal ratings and FSS-flow scores. Mixed-effects models predicting pedal angle from heart-rate variability (HRV) metrics revealed that high-frequency (HF)-HRV was a negative predictor, while the low-frequency (LF)/HF ratio showed no reliable association with pedal angle. A time sensitive cross-correlation analysis, however, identified relationships between both HRV metrics and pedal angle, highlighting parasympathetic activity and autonomic balance as physiological indicators that accompany flow experience. Finally, game performance was found to be a robust, positive predictor of flow at both game subleveles and second-by-second resolution. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that continuous measurement can capture temporal dynamics and physiological correlates of flow that retrospective assessment cannot.

Digital technologies (DT) are embedded in daily life, yet their impact and the experience of use vary across age groups and cultural contexts creating disparities in access, skills, and perceived benefits. This study examines how age moderates the relationship between the Quality of Digital Experience (QDE)—comprising the three dimensions of social connectedness, well-being, and time and efficiency—and Immersion in Digital Life (IDL) across six European countries. Drawing on data from 5,270 adults, moderation analyses revealed that all QDE dimensions significantly predict IDL, raising social connectedness as the strongest contributor. Age moderated these relationships differently across countries: younger adults generally showed stronger associations between QDE factors and IDL, particularly well-being, whereas in Czechia and Poland, older adults demonstrated higher levels of digital immersion. In sum, digital engagement is shaped by experiential quality, age, and cultural context rather than following a uniform generational division. These findings highlight the need for inclusive digital policies and interventions that promote digital well-being across the lifespan.

There is growing awareness that wellbeing in today's digital age cannot simply be achieved by minimising digital engagement. Instead, it requires living well with digital technology and pursuing digital practices that afford a sense of productivity and user control. This study sought to identify and distinguish between types of digital technology use viewed as ideal, acceptable or tolerable and negative and determine what factors contribute to digital practices being evaluated this way. 50 semi-structured interviews were conducted with individuals from the UK population. An inductive and interpretative thematic analysis of the data led to the creation of four themes, which differentiated between digital practices associated with (1) high productivity and high control (ideal digital engagement), (2) high productivity and low control (acceptable or tolerable technology use), (3) low productivity and low control (negative digital practices) and (4) low productivity and high control (mixed digital experiences). Quality of digital experience was shaped by how well the type of productivity afforded by specific digital practices aligned with user goals in a specific context and how well these practices supported user control in interaction with the context of digital engagement. As control was perceived to be restricted by external factors, such as digital functions and social norms, control-enhancing structural, societal and social changes may be needed to support digital wellbeing. In addition, non-prescriptive education that raises awareness of productivity and control as broad principles of good digital time could be helpful. However, further research is needed to investigate the effectiveness of such interventions.

This study investigates the effects of three variants of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Techniques (REST)—guided meditation, multimodal Ganzfeld (MMGF), and a control resting condition—on subjective experiences related to altered states of consciousness (ASC). Specifically, the study examines emotional responses, time perception, and perceived body boundaries, while also assessing the role of trait absorption as an individual difference variable. In a within-subjects design, 48 healthy participants without prior meditation experience completed three counterbalanced 25-minute sessions across the three conditions. Measures included the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), Subjective Time, Self, and Space Scales (STSS), Perceived Body Boundaries Scale (PBBS), and the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS). Results revealed that guided meditation significantly reduced arousal and time-related thoughts compared to both the control and Ganzfeld conditions, indicating decreased mind wandering and enhanced relaxation. Correlational analyses demonstrated that positive affect and low arousal were associated with fewer time-related thoughts and faster perceived time in the control condition. The Ganzfeld condition linked reduced body boundary salience to positive emotional states as well as positive affect with a faster passage of time. In the meditation condition lower arousal was associated with reduced sense of body boundaries. Regression analyses further indicated that higher trait absorption predicted diminished body boundary salience in both the control and Ganzfeld conditions, suggesting that individual differences in absorptive capacity modulate susceptibility to ASC-like experiences. Overall, the findings highlight both shared and distinct effects of REST variants on experiences and underscore the importance of personality traits in shaping subjective responses to reduced environmental stimulation.

During the Covid-19 pandemic, the digital transformation of working life received an unexpected boost. People were forced to set up workspaces in their homes, to provide play and learning spaces for their children, and to restrict their lives to private rooms. Virilio's vision of a ‘polar inertia’ (2000) became real. The reduction of physical mobility was offset by an increase of virtual mobility and communication. While several consequences, e.g., on traffic and housing, have been discussed, the dissolution of the unity of sensory perceptions of the same place and the multiplication of perception by being tied to the screen space and at being present at other places virtually has so far received little attention. To find out how people in different life phases and family constellations dealt with these spatio-temporal changes in their everyday lives, we applied a heuristic approach and conducted a semi-structured online survey. We asked how people perceive the reduction of corporeal mobility and breaks, how they evaluate virtual and face-to-face meetings, as well as travel times. We discovered ‘old’ inequalities between men and women with regard to how they percevice space-time as well as ‘new’ inequalities between age groups especially due to the loss of common spaces and times in corporeal communications during breaks. In addition, some paradoxical statements point to divided attitude towards the new forms of communication in everyday working life. This shows that the advantages and disadvantages of digitalization need to be carefully weighed against each other.

Recent research shows that young children frequently report non-ordinary experiences, including extra sensory perceptions, out-of-body experiences, and states of self-transcendence, reflecting relational, pre-linguistic, and weakly individualised forms of consciousness. This paper integrates qualitative studies of children’s experiences with contemporary altered states of consciousness (ASC) classification schemes, applying the eight-dimensional model of altered consciousness (Fort et al., 2025). Phenomenological parallels are identified between childhood experiences and adult ASCs, including vivid imagery, bodily dislocation, self-boundary dissolution, timelessness, heightened affect, and altered cognitive control. We propose that early transcendental modes of awareness may form an experiential template that mimics adults’ pursuit of ASCs through meditation, psychedelics, sensory deprivation, and spiritual practices. Adopting a lifespan perspective, the paper highlights the need for systematic developmental and neuro-phenomenological research to better understand continuities between childhood consciousness and adult altered states.

Digital technologies (DT) have become deeply embedded in everyday life, evolving into a key determinant of contemporary quality of life. However, the impact and the experiences of using DT are not homogeneous across age groups and cultural contexts. This study examines how age moderates the relationship between the Quality of Digital Experience (QDE) comprising the three dimensions of social connectedness, well-being, and time/efficiency and Immersion in Digital Life (IDL) across six European countries. Drawing on data from 5,270 adults, moderation analyses show that all QDE dimensions significantly predict IDL, identifying social connectedness as the strongest contributor to digital well-being. Age moderated these relationships differently across countries: younger adults generally showed stronger associations between QDE factors and IDL (particularly regarding the well-being dimension), whereas in contexts like Czechia and Poland, older adults demonstrated higher levels of digital immersion. These findings underscore the importance of integrating a life-course perspective and cultural context to understand subjective digital well-being, highlighting the need for applied policies and interventions that promote high-quality digital inclusion across the lifespan.

This study investigated the prevalence, phenomenology, and potential transformative significance of nonordinary experiences in a representative German sample. Across cultures and historical periods, such experiences have been widely reported and often culturally valued. To assess these phenomena, the study employed the Inventory of Nonordinary Experiences (INOE; Taves et al., 2023), a phenomenologically grounded instrument that focuses on subjective experiential qualities rather than explanatory frameworks. The INOE was administered alongside two validated measures: the Questionnaire on the Phenomenology of Exceptional Experiences (PExE-II), which assesses frequency and types of anomalous experiences, and the Inventory of Secular/Spiritual Wakefulness (WAKE-16), which measures positive self-transformation. Data from 440 participants revealed that nonordinary experiences are widely distributed. Exceptionally strong emotional experiences (e.g., awe, love, loss) were most frequently reported, while explicitly anomalous phenomena (e.g., telepathy, sensed presences) were less common but still notable, with prevalence rates of 10–30%. Correlational analyses showed positive associations between INOE domains and PExE-II dimensions, indicating that experiences more prevalent in the population tend to occur more frequently within individuals. In structural equation modelling, the INOE emerged as a significant positive predictor of the WAKE-16, indicating an association between nonordinary experiences and self-transcendent personality development. Overall, the findings support the perspective that nonordinary experiences constitute a widespread and meaningful aspect of human experience. While frequently interpreted within culture-specific and spiritual frameworks, they may play a role in psychological growth and transformation. The study further acknowledges methodological limitations and underscores the need for additional research into contextual and causal mechanisms.

This micro-phenomenological study examines altered states of consciousness (ASC) during Floatation-REST, a sensory isolation method where individuals lie in a tank filled with Epsom salt-saturated water in complete silence and darkness. Salubrious effects of Floatation-REST have been shown in persons suffering from mental health conditions; these positive outcomes might be related to the experience of ASC. Micro-phenomenological interviews were conducted with fourteen participants who completed a 60-minute Floatation-REST session, to capture the generic structure of ASC. We found that most participants experience four distinct phases during a session (diachronic structure): after an initial acclimatization phase (1), participants experience a transitional phase (2) that prepares them for a subsequent ASC phase (3), followed by a phase of temporal and spatial reorientation (4). The ASC phase is characterized by the experience of positive emotions, deep relaxation, a loss of orientation in space and time, and a reduction in bodily sensations and thoughts (synchronic structure). The characteristics of the ASC phase emerge gradually and progressively intensify. This micro-phenomenological analysis of Floatation-REST sheds new light on the potential of this therapeutic technique. We discuss possible future research and therapeutic applications of Floatation-REST.

I interpret and extend Cavaletti and Heimann's use of micro-phenomenology in time-perception research, arguing that the method not only validates experimental task interpretation but can also generate mechanistic hypotheses about underlying cognitive, emotional, and bodily processes. Drawing on additional empirical examples (assessment of flow states and temporal-order thresholds), it illustrates how the use of micro-phenomenological interviews could clarify dissociations between duration estimation and time-passage perception and help explain otherwise puzzling quantitative findings.

Despite the widespread use of digital technologies during free time and its potential benefits for wellbeing and recovery from work life, digital engagement is considered a low-quality form of free time that often results in significant regret and guilt. Given its increasing significance as an accessible source of relaxation and enjoyment in today's post-COVID digitised society and the negative health consequences of chronic regret and guilt, the current study sought to explore the drivers of guilt and regret following digital free time across Europe. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 150 participants from Czechia, Germany, Poland, Spain, Frenchspeaking Switzerland and the UK. A thematic analysis of the data showed that digital free time was perceived as inconsistent with the ideal of meaningful and self-determined free time and led to a spiral of guilty pleasure: Unintentional or involuntary uptake of digital activity, digital engagement beyond the desired duration and consumption of unwanted content were followed by a negative evaluation of one's own digital behaviour as a self-regulative failure and digital free time as unproductive, passive, unhealthy and inauthentic. The perceived meaninglessness and lack of control over digital free time engendered feelings of guilt and regret, which were maintained through continued digital engagement during free time. Measures to reduce guilt and regret may require societal-level changes in the way digital technology use during free time is portrayed in media and mainstream discourse in combination with structural changes to digital entertainment apps or services.

Flow, as defined by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (1975), is a holistic experience in which individuals are fully immersed in an activity, resulting in a diminished sense of self and an altered perception of time. To investigate the global neural dynamics underlying flow, we employed EEG microstate analysis, which capture the spatial and temporal properties of dominant transient global brain states (Lehmann et al. 1998). In a study involving 43 participants playing the video game Thumper for 25 min, we extracted three four-minute EEG segments from each session corresponding to reported experiences of flow, boredom, and frustration, as determined by self-reports and performance metrics. Across conditions, six distinct microstate topographies (A–F) accounted for most of the global variance. Given that reduced self-referential processing is a key feature of flow, we hypothesized that flow would modulate the properties of microstates C and E, which have been associated with brain regions resembling the default mode network (DMN). Compared to boredom and frustration, the flow condition showed significantly decreased global explained variance, mean duration, time coverage, and occurrence frequency of microstate E, as well as reduced mean duration and time coverage of microstate C. These findings suggest that microstates associated with self-referential processing are shorter and less frequent during flow than during boredom and frustration. This supports the notion that the flow experience modulates global brain dynamics, particularly within the DMN. Furthermore, our results align with previous research reporting reduced DMN activity during meditative and psychedelic states, reinforcing the idea of diminished self-awareness in such conditions.

Digital devices are marketed as tools to improve efficiency and save time, however their use is also often associated with time pressure, time poverty and reduced wellbeing. Precisely how and why digital technologies reduce the availability of time is largely unknown. This study sought to explore the ways in which people experience a loss of time as a result of digital technology use. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 300 people from Spain, Poland, Czechia, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Thematic analysis of the interview data revealed that digital technology use impacted the way in which time was used, monitored and evaluated. Participants associated digital technology use with a loss of time, a desire to fill all time, a propensity to forget time and, as a result, a desire to gain greater control of time. As a result, the experience of loss of time to digital technology was associated with feelings of guilt, shame and a lack of self-control. The findings suggest that a combination of structural factors, including imperfect algorithm content provision and ease of device use, and attitudinal factors, including the belief that digital time was inauthentic, unintellectual or “bad for you”, lead to the perception of time loss through digital device use. Improvements in algorithmic content generation and greater acceptance of the benefits of time on digital media may help reduce the sense that time is lost to digital technology, and the associated feelings of guilt and loss of control.