In response to the critical decline of Pinna nobilis populations in the Mediterranean, following a multifactorial disease outbreak that caused mass mortality, several conservation efforts were initiated to safeguard surviving populations, including the reintroduction of juvenile and adult P. nobilis. Aquaculture was identified as a valuable conservation strategy to support captive reproduction while reducing pressure on wild populations. Central to these efforts is a comprehensive understanding of reproductive biology and the development of rearing protocols in controlled environments. To this end, a specific aquaculture set-up was used to improve the maintenance conditions of P. nobilis in captivity. Five spawning induction assays were performed on 6 adults between May and July 2024 by thermal shock. An additional two spawning events were triggered by transport stress, providing the release of only male gametes and already dividing oocytes (putative self-fertilization). Low larval viability was observed in these latter events, since larvae stopped at the D-larval stage (9 days post-fertilization-dpf). Following the thermal shock, we observed the release of male and female gametes (unfertilized eggs), separately, by several specimens, enabling controlled fertilization, resulting in larval development that reached the umbonate larval stage (150 μm, 16 days post fertilization). This last larval cycle lasted up to 21 days (although the larvae died afterwards), in contrast to spontaneous internal fertilization. This success was likely due to a combination of factors: larval density (5 embryos/mL), water changes every two days, and a diet rich in EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid). Collectively, these elements underline the potential of controlled aquaculture systems to support the early development and conservation of P. nobilis.

The increasing presence of abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) on the seafloor is a major source of microplastics (MPs) pollution in coastal ecosystems. This study assessed the concentration, morphology, and chemical composition of MPs in surface sediments collected from Alicante and Benidorm, in the Valencian Community, eastern coast of Spain, Mediterranean Sea. Impacted sites with fishing nets were compared to control sites without nets. Two analytical techniques were used for polymer identification, depending on particle size: micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (µFTIR) and Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR). The results showed significantly higher MPs concentrations in sites affected by ALDFG. The findings highlight a clear link between the presence of fishing nets and MPs accumulation in sediments. This underlines the urgent need for mitigation strategies and recovery of discarded fishing gear. This study addresses a gap in the literature regarding MPs contamination on rocky coastal substrates and calls for further research to assess the long-term ecotoxicological impacts on marine ecosystems.

SARS-CoV-2 XFG (nicknamed Stratus), a recombinant lineage arising from LP.8.1.2 and LF.7, is currently the most prevalent circulating lineage. Although most recombinant lineages do not pose a significant public health concern, some have shown the capacity to emerge and spread, highlighting the importance of their investigation. In this context, we performed a genome-based analysis to assess the genetic variability of XFG and to identify its recombination breakpoint. The breakpoint was mapped to approximately position 1507 within the spike (S) gene, in the distal region of the receptor-binding domain. This configuration suggests that LP.8.1.2 contributed the genomic backbone as the acceptor, whereas LF.7 acted as the donor. Phylodynamic survey suggests that XFG originated in early 2024, approximately 10 months before its first genomic detection. Bayesian Skyline Plot revealed a transient expansion phase beginning in August 2024, followed by a plateau, indicating limited and non-sustained growth. The estimated evolutionary rate of XFG (2.90 × 10-4 subs/site/year) was comparable to those of its parental lineages, supporting a relatively low level of genetic variability. Overall, these findings suggest that the widespread prevalence of XFG is more likely driven by lineage turnover rather than increased transmissibility, highlighting the importance of continuous genomic surveillance for monitoring emerging SARS-CoV-2 lineages.

Orf virus (ORFV), a member of the Parapoxvirus genus, is commonly associated with a highly infectious skin disease primarily affecting sheep and goats, with a reported zoonotic potential. Initially identified in the 18th century, ORFV has been sporadically reported in other species, including humans. The present study analyzed the genetic variability and phylodynamic patterns of ORFV using the highly variable VIR gene, focusing on global strains from multiple hosts, including various species of ruminants and humans. A dataset of 267 ORFV strains from around the world, including sequences from the understudied island of Cuba, was used for the analyses. Results revealed greater genetic variability for ORFV than previously reported. While the virus may be defined as a generalist pathogen, capable of infecting various ruminant species and less frequently humans, signs of host-specific specialization are emerging exclusively for sheep and goats. Other ruminant species and humans may be categorized as occasional hosts, with infections likely linked to habitat overlap with sheep and goats and sporadic transmission that appears influenced by specific risk factors. In conclusion, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the transmission risks posed by ORFV, highlighting the need for further investigations into its potential to infect a broader range of hosts, particularly humans.

The recent expansion of Pinna rudis Linnaeus, 1758 in the Mediterranean Sea, following the collapse of its congener P. nobilis Linnaeus, 1758, raises questions about the full understanding of its evolutionary history, population connectivity and the role of hybridisation in a rapidly changing marine system. Here, we combine mitochondrial phylogenetics, molecular dating and population genetic analyses across the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins to reconstruct the demographic and evolutionary history of P. rudis. By integrating mitochondrial phylogeography and temporal inference across the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins, we show that the evolutionary trajectory of P. rudis reflects both deep-time oceanographic reorganisation and mid-Pleistocene climatic instability. While the ancestral early lineages of the species emerged during major inter-oceanic restructuring in the late Pliocene, present-day mitochondrial diversity largely originated during mid-Pleistocene oscillations, resulting in independently evolving Atlantic and Mediterranean populations characterised by restricted connectivity. Basin-specific ecological contexts further contributed to different evolutionary dynamics, with Mediterranean populations shaped by bottlenecks during glacial periods and long-term coexistence with P. nobilis and Atlantic populations primarily influenced by climatic and habitat change. The detection of natural hybridisation in the Mediterranean adds an additional layer of evolutionary complexity in a system undergoing rapid demographic expansion. Together, these findings illustrate how historical processes, evolutionary forces, and contemporary perturbations interact to shape genetic diversity in marine populations.

The journal retracts the article “Zoonotic Paramyxoviruses: Evolution, Ecology, and Public Health Strategies in a Changing World” [...]

In Italy, marine recreational fishing is a remarkably popular activity with a long tradition, but it is only recently that scientific research interest in this field has gained momentum. To date, research on marine recreational fishing in Italy have explored different dimensions. Such as monitoring spearfishing tournaments, assessing potential impacts on benthic organisms, comparing it with artisanal fishing practices, examining its occurrence within marine protected areas, and investigating its social, economic, and ecological implications. Marine recreational fishing can have significant impact on ecological, social, and economic spheres. Thus, there is a need for an integrated approach that considers an ecosystem perspective in resource management and monitoring. The goal of this paper is to consolidate research findings related to marine recreational fishing in Italy, identifying knowledge gaps and potential areas for future research. To achieve this, we conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed papers on the topic, categorizing each paper into five sections: (i) spearfishing tournaments; (ii) effects of recreational fishing on benthic organisms; (iii) recreational and artisanal fisheries; (iv) recreational fishing and marine protected areas; (v) social and ecological aspects of marine recreational fishing. Subsequently, we synthetized the key findings of each paper and drew overall conclusions for each section. The landscape of marine recreational fishing is continuously evolving worldwide, and we aim for this review to elucidate the progress made thus far in Italy, provide new research perspectives, and encourage further research, monitoring efforts, and to strength collaboration with national and international stakeholders.

This review addresses the critical conservation challenges faced by Pinna nobilis, the noble pen shell, a keystone umbrella species in Mediterranean marine ecosystems. Since 2016, the species has experienced catastrophic population declines due to mass mortality events likely driven by protozoan, bacterial, and viral infections. Despite these severe circumstances, small resilient populations persist in select estuaries and coastal lagoons across the Mediterranean, offering potential for recovery. We provide a comprehensive overview on research dedicated to Pinna nobilis' biology, genetic variation, disease dynamics, and environmental factors influencing its survival, with a focus on refugia where populations still endure. Remarkably, recent studies have revealed signs of resistance in certain individuals and the potential for hybridisation with Pinna rudis. In this context, the possible impact of the increasing occurrence of hybridisation between Pinna nobilis and Pinna rudis on the conservation of their genetic diversity should be carefully considered. This review highlights the importance of ongoing conservation efforts including habitat restoration, protection of remaining populations, assessment of past and present genetic variability, and the development of captive breeding programmes. We aim to elucidate the need for continued studies on Pinna nobilis' biodiversity, particularly its evolutionary dynamics, genetic makeup, and the interplay of environmental variables influencing its survival and persistence.

In Italy, the consumption and the production of shellfish, including clams, is considerable and has a significant impact on human health. In the lagoon of Capo Peloro (Sicily), three native clam species, Cerastoderma glaucum, Ruditapes decussatus, and Polititapes aureus, are traditionally farmed, locally commercialized, and highly appreciated by consumers. The fatty acid (FA) profile of these Sicilian species collected in 2023 and 2024 was evaluated and compared with the non-commercial samples from the reserve of Oliveri-Tindari (Sicily) and the extensively commercial R. decussatus from Sardinia. The results confirmed a low-fat product, rich in C16:0 (22.37%-31.88%) and DHA (9.59%-17.48%). Samples from Capo Peloro are characterized by the highest content of saturated FAs (42.78%-50.88%) while samples from Sardinia have the highest content of polyunsaturated FAs (37.26%-40.83%). However, the fat in all samples demonstrated high nutritional quality, supported by good nutritional indexes and significant levels of EPA and DHA. Statistical analysis, used to differentiate the samples according to location, sampling year, and species, highlights the influence of environmental factors, seasonal variation, and genetic diversity on the FA composition. Among these, climatic temperature appears to be the most influential factor in regulating the balance between saturated and unsaturated FAs.

The fan mussel Pinna nobilis is the largest bivalve species in the Mediterranean Sea and provides numerous ecosystem services. It is classified as critically endangered by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) due to severe mass mortality events throughout the Mediterranean. The aims of this work are as follows: (i) to assess the current recruitment potential of the species, (ii) to enhance recruitment by keeping juveniles in controlled conditions before releasing them back into the sea, and (iii) to assess the health status of recruits. In the period 2022–2023, larval collectors were set up in the Gulf of Trieste as part of the LIFE Pinna project. The collected individuals were kept in aquaria in two different facilities under different conditions: (a) a closed system with constant water temperature, live phytoplankton, and commercial food and (b) an open system with ambient seawater temperature and commercial food. A clear temporal and spatial variability in recruitment was observed: 13 recruits were found in 2022 and 50 recruits in 2023. The live specimens were between 0.5 and 8 cm in size upon collection and larger in 2023. The growth and survival rate did not differ significantly between the two systems, but the average monthly growth and survival rate were related to the initial size of the juveniles.

Human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) are deltaretroviruses infecting millions of individuals worldwide, with HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 being the most widespread and clinically relevant types. HTLV-1 is associated with severe diseases such as adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP), while HTLV-2 shows a lower pathogenic potential, with occasional links to neurological disorders. HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, identified in Central Africa, remain poorly characterized but are genetically close to their simian counterparts, indicating recent zoonotic transmission events. HTLVs replicate through a complex cycle involving cell-to-cell transmission and clonal expansion of infected lymphocytes. Viral persistence is mediated by regulatory and accessory proteins, notably Tax and HBZ in HTLV-1, which alter host cell signaling, immune responses, and genomic stability. Integration of proviral DNA into transcriptionally active regions of the host genome may contribute to oncogenesis and long-term viral latency. Differences in viral protein function and intracellular localization contribute to the distinct pathogenesis observed between HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. Geographically, HTLV-1 shows endemic clusters in southwestern Japan, sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean, South America, and parts of the Middle East and Oceania. HTLV-2 is concentrated among Indigenous populations in the Americas and people who inject drugs in Europe and North America. Transmission occurs primarily via breastfeeding, sexual contact, contaminated blood products, and, in some regions, zoonotic spillover. Diagnostic approaches include serological screening (ELISA, Western blot, LIA) and molecular assays (PCR, qPCR), with novel biosensor and AI-based methods under development. Despite advances in understanding viral biology, therapeutic options remain limited, and preventive strategies focus on transmission control. The long latency period, lack of effective treatments, and global neglect complicate public health responses, underscoring the need for increased awareness, research investment, and targeted interventions.

The Ohrid trout, Salmo letnica, is an endemic species of Lake Ohrid, one of Europe’s oldest lakes, located on the Albania-North Macedonia border. This species exhibits distinct morphotypes—Salmo letnica typicus, Salmo letnica aestivalis, Salmo letnica balcanicus, and Salmo letnica lumi—that differ in morphology and spawning behaviour. However, the extent of their genetic differentiation remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the genetic variability and population structure of Salmo letnica morphotypes using the mitochondrial Control Region as molecular marker. We obtained 127 sequences from Salmo letnica morphotypes and compared them with sequences from other species within the genus Salmo. Phylogenetic and clustering analyses revealed no significant genetic structuring among the four morphotypes, suggesting an ecological differentiation not (yet) fixed at mitochondrial level. Additionally, our findings suggest that the modern Salmo letnica population likely originated in Lake Ohrid from Salmo farioides founders through evolutionary differentiation, potentially driven by environmental changes. Future studies incorporating a larger number of samples from both Salmo letnica and Salmo farioides are essential to fully understand the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of Salmo letnica morphotypes.

Clams are bivalves molluscs that have been exploited as food since ancient times. They contain high-quality nutrients, including essential minerals that have a great influence on human health. However, clams absorb and bioaccumulate potentially toxic elements, characterized by persistence in the environment, toxicity, and ability to accumulate and magnify within biological systems. For the first time, three co-occurring clam species (Ruditapes decussatus, Cerastoderma glaucum and Polititapes aureus) were investigated in their concentration of 20 mineral elements by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The samples were collected in 2023 and 2024 from transitional water environments in Sicily, characterized by different levels of anthropogenic pressure. Additionally, R. decussatus samples from commercially exploited beds in two Sardinian lagoons were compared with samples of the locally consumed Sicilian stocks. Aim of the study was to carry out a geographical, temporal and species-specific statistical comparison of a wide range of elements, providing a novel contribution to the field. The clams showed an important level of essential elements, including Fe and Zn. The concentration of potentially toxic elements, being very low (Hg, Pd and Cd below the legal limits), does not cause health problems, according to risk assessment. The main potentially toxic element found in all samples is Al. The results showed a high variability in mineral concentrations among the different samples, in terms of time, species and, mostly, location, as proved by the PCA statistical model which discriminated Sicilian clams from Sardinian clams, due to the higher concentration of potentially toxic elements in the latter.

Recombination, a process of genetic exchange between distinct organisms, has played a critical role in the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants such as the XEC recombinant. This study provides a detailed genomic and structural characterization of XEC, derived from the recombination of lineages KP.3.3 (donor) and KS.1.1 (acceptor). Phylogenomic analyses reveal that XEC and its descendant XEC.1 form a monophyletic clade with close evolutionary ties to KP.3.3. The genomic breakpoint, spanning nucleotide positions 22,363–22,463, marks the shift from KS.1.1 to KP.3.3 within the spike protein gene. Mutational analysis highlights shared traits with its parental lineages, including mutations associated with immune evasion, receptor affinity, and fusogenicity. Notable changes, such as Q493E and L455S, may confer unique immunogenic properties, though XEC’s overall immune escape potential is limited by the absence of new mutations in conserved epitopes. Despite these mutations, XEC demonstrates restricted geographical spread, low genetic variability, and an evolutionary trajectory indicative of an evolutionary dead-end. Bayesian Skyline Plot analysis corroborates this, showing stable but declining population size. These findings underscore the need for ongoing genomic surveillance to monitor recombinant variants’ characteristics and public health impact. This study contributes to understanding viral evolution and highlights the importance of distinguishing variants of concern from those with minimal epidemiological significance.

The noble pen shell, Pinna nobilis, is an iconic marine bivalve endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, playing a key role as an ecosystem engineer. Over the past century, it has faced severe threats from overharvesting, pollution, and catastrophic mass mortality events. This study analysed 119 mitochondrial COI gene sequences from historical (1700s, 1920s, 1970s, 1990s) and modern (2000s) samples, including survivors of recent mass mortality crises. We standardised a protocol to extract DNA from ancient byssus samples over a century old and dated the emergence of the mitochondrial lineages of Pinna nobilis, uncovering its evolutionary history in unprecedented detail. Our findings suggest two main temporal origins for the species’ genetic variation: (i) a group of modern lineages directly descended from Pinna nobilis early ancestors originating 2.5 mya, and (ii) a large group derived from the first Pleistocene radiation of the species, approximately 1.5 mya. Importantly, our research depicts the evolutionary response of Pinna nobilis to three major challenges in the last century: human overexploitation, pollution, and environmental changes. Our results highlight the species’ remarkable resilience, likely mediated by Pleistocene genetic traits, whose persistence over time mainly depends on the maintaining of a high effective population size to ensure successful recruitment.

The family Paramyxoviridae includes a number of negative RNA viruses known for their wide host range and significant zoonotic potential. In recent years, there has been a surge in the identification of emerging zoonotic paramyxoviruses, particularly those hosted by bat species, which serve as key reservoirs. Among these, the genera Henipavirus and Pararubulavirus are of particular concern. Henipaviruses, including the highly pathogenic Hendra and Nipah viruses, have caused severe outbreaks with high mortality rates in both humans and animals. In contrast, zoonotic pararubulaviruses such as the Menangle virus typically induce mild symptoms or remain asymptomatic in human hosts. This review summarizes current knowledge on the evolution, ecology, and epidemiology of emerging zoonotic paramyxoviruses, focusing on recently discovered viruses and their potential to cause future epidemics. We explore the molecular mechanisms underlying host-switching events, viral replication strategies, and immune evasion tactics that facilitate interspecies transmission. In addition, we discuss ecological factors influencing virus emergence, including changes in bat populations and habitats and the role of wildlife–human interfaces. We also examine the public health impact of these emerging viruses, underlining the importance of enhanced surveillance, developing improved diagnostic tools, and implementing proactive strategies to prevent potential outbreaks. By providing a comprehensive overview of recent advances and gaps in knowledge, this review aims to inform future research directions and public health policies related to zoonotic paramyxoviruses.

Journal of Medical VirologyVolume 96, Issue 1 e29359 LETTER TO THE EDITOR The mutation point of view of the SARS-CoV-2 HV.1 lineage Alessandra Ciccozzi, Alessandra Ciccozzi Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorPier Luigi Fiori, Pier Luigi Fiori orcid.org/0000-0001-6190-612X Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy Azienza Ospedaliera Universitaria (AOU) Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorMarco Casu, Marco Casu Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorDaria Sanna, Daria Sanna Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorMassimo Ciccozzi, Corresponding Author Massimo Ciccozzi [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0003-3866-9239 Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy Correspondence Massimo Ciccozzi, Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected] Fabio Scarpa, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorFabio Scarpa, Corresponding Author Fabio Scarpa [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-3501-714X Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy Correspondence Massimo Ciccozzi, Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected] Fabio Scarpa, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author Alessandra Ciccozzi, Alessandra Ciccozzi Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorPier Luigi Fiori, Pier Luigi Fiori orcid.org/0000-0001-6190-612X Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy Azienza Ospedaliera Universitaria (AOU) Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorMarco Casu, Marco Casu Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorDaria Sanna, Daria Sanna Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorMassimo Ciccozzi, Corresponding Author Massimo Ciccozzi [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0003-3866-9239 Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy Correspondence Massimo Ciccozzi, Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected] Fabio Scarpa, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorFabio Scarpa, Corresponding Author Fabio Scarpa [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-3501-714X Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy Correspondence Massimo Ciccozzi, Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected] Fabio Scarpa, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author First published: 02 January 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.29359Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Supporting Information Filename Description jmv29359-sup-0001-Table_S1_R1.docx24.8 KB Table S1. Comparison of the HV.1, EG.5 and BA.2.86 mutations in the whole genome region. Mutations of interest (MoI) are listed in red bold font, while Mutations of Concern (MoC) are listed in blue bold font. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. REFERENCES 1Borsetti A, Scarpa F, Maruotti A, et al. The unresolved question on COVID-19 virus origin: the three cards game? J Med Virol. 2022; 94: 1257-1260. doi:10.1002/jmv.27519 10.1002/jmv.27519 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 2Qiu X, Liu Y, Sha A. SARS-CoV-2 and natural infection in animals. J Med Virol. 2023; 95:e28147. doi:10.1002/jmv.28147 10.1002/jmv.28147 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 3 Centre for Disease and Control (CDC)—COVID Data Tracker. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#variant-proportions Google Scholar 4 World Health Organization. WHO Tracking SARS-CoV-2 Variants. https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants Google Scholar 5Arunava K. 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Viral hepatitis is a major cause of liver illness worldwide. Despite advances in the understanding of these infections, the pathogenesis of hepatitis remains a complex process driven by intricate interactions between hepatitis viruses and host cells at the molecular level. This paper will examine in detail the dynamics of these host–pathogen interactions, highlighting the key mechanisms that regulate virus entry into the hepatocyte, their replication, evasion of immune responses, and induction of hepatocellular damage. The unique strategies employed by different hepatitis viruses, such as hepatitis B, C, D, and E viruses, to exploit metabolic and cell signaling pathways to their advantage will be discussed. At the same time, the innate and adaptive immune responses put in place by the host to counter viral infection will be analyzed. Special attention will be paid to genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors that modulate individual susceptibility to different forms of viral hepatitis. In addition, this work will highlight the latest findings on the mechanisms of viral persistence leading to the chronic hepatitis state and the potential implications for the development of new therapeutic strategies. Fully understanding the complex host–pathogen interactions in viral hepatitis is crucial to identifying new therapeutic targets, developing more effective approaches for treatment, and shedding light on the mechanisms underlying progression to more advanced stages of liver damage.