We analyze the last six update cycles of the long-term probabilistic earthquake shaking hazard forecast from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and discuss the changes in hazard estimates from the 1996 to the latest 2023 update of the National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for the conterminous United States. We summarize how our understanding of earthquake hazards has evolved over the last two decades and quantify the implications of changing hazards on people, buildings, and lifeline infrastructure. The net effect of changes in hazard estimates, with reference to the mean hazard from the 2023 NSHM update that has 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years, suggests an overall increase in total geographic areas facing very strong shaking levels (modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) of VII or more) when compared with any of the previous cycles. This increase puts similar to 159.2 million people (an increase from 111.8 million when using the 2018 NSHM), similar to 47.3 million residential buildings (an increase from 32.5 million with the 2018 NSHM), and similar to$25.6 trillion of economic exposure of all buildings (an increase from $17.4 trillion when using the 2018 NSHM) at risk from earthquakes. We demonstrate that small changes in hazard estimates do not necessarily imply small changes in risk estimates. Therefore, changes in risk estimates can be used to highlight key USGS NSHM updates for improving risk mitigation efforts.

The U.S. Geological Survey recently updated the National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (PRVI). The first version of the PRVI NSHM was released in 2003, and therefore this 2025 update includes over 20 years of new geologic, geophysical, and engineering data, methods, and models. Updates follow similar efforts performed in the recent 2023 50‐state NSHM. However, this is the first NSHM in which we: (1) apply an inversion methodology to subduction interface fault sources in the earthquake rupture forecast (ERF) model; (2) develop scaled backbone median ground‐motion models and independent aleatory variability models that are applied in the ground‐motion characterization (GMC) model; and (3) calculate epistemic uncertainty related to alternative scenarios in the ERF and GMC models for all grid points in the study region. Long‐term time‐independent mean hazard calculations were performed for peak ground acceleration and 5%‐damped pseudospectral acceleration at 21 spectral periods from 0.01‐ to 10.0‐s, for eight National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program site conditions ranging from V S30 = 150 to 1500 m/s, and for 2%, 5%, and 10% in 50‐year probabilities of exceedance (return periods of 2475, 975, and 475 years, respectively). Epistemic uncertainty, in the form of selected percentiles, is also provided for a suite of test sites and all grid points in the study region for limited periods, site conditions, and probabilities of exceedance. Selected results, including comparisons with the 2003 PRVI NSHM, are shown and discussed for selected periods, site conditions, and probabilities of exceedance. When comparing the 2025 PRVI NSHM with the 2003 PRVI NSHM, hazard is generally higher at shorter periods and lower at longer periods, as a result of updates in both ERF and GMC models. The 2025 PRVI NSHM is applicable for return periods greater than ∼475 or less than ∼10,000 years.

A main goal of probabilistic fault displacement hazard analysis (PFDHA) is to quantify displacement along and across an identified active fault that poses a hazard to nearby infrastructure such as roads, bridges, pipelines, and telecommunications. PFDHA relies on empirical models developed using data sets of displacement measurements and mapped surface rupture traces compiled from past global surface rupturing earthquakes by field surveys or remote sensing. However, current approaches to determine the location of the main rupture trace are subjective and lack repeatability due to different geological interpretations of the often complex network of mapped rupture traces. This subjectivity makes it difficult to compile and analyze displacement measurements and ruptures from multiple events in a consistent manner. This study provides an objective and repeatable approach to define a main rupture trace that can be applied to either field or remote sensing data. The new approach defined here can be used in developing rupture trace connectivity and geometry for use in displacement model developments and for use in objectively defining the input fault trace for assessing fault displacement hazard.

The probability distribution model for principal displacement accommodated on the surface main trace is a critical input to the fault displacement hazard analysis. This article presents a new model for strike-slip ruptures in the moment magnitude ( M ) range of 6 to 8.3. The new model is the outcome of a multi-year research effort to update the widely used model developed by Petersen and others in 2011. Updates include the adoption of the Fault Displacement Hazard Initiative database and enhancements to rupture and displacement data preparation. Statistical formulation and estimation have also been updated substantially. A three-parameter modified normal distribution that we refer to as the negative Exponentially Modified Gaussian distribution is adopted to model the probability distribution of the natural logarithm of principal displacement. Formulation for the mean parameter of the modified normal includes a random earthquake term, a nonlinear scaling relation with M , and an ellipse function for along-main-trace variation. The aleatory variability of the updated model now depends on M as well as site’s along-main-trace position. These updates not only significantly improve the fit to the distribution of the observed displacements but also yield reasonable 95th percentile predictions for M > 7.5 events. Alternative models representing the estimation uncertainty of the M -scaling relation are also developed. These new models are compared to the previous model in terms of percentile predictions and the calculated hazard curves. The steeper hazard curves from the new models yield a lower exceedance rate than the normal-distribution based model developed previously by Petersen and others.

To date, few Earth System Models (ESMs) have the ability to simulate the flow in the ocean cavities below Antarctic ice shelves and its influence on basal melting. Yet capturing both this flow and the resulting melt patterns is critical for representing local, regional, and global feedbacks between the climate and sub-ice-shelf melting. Here, we present a small ensemble of historical simulations and SSP3-7.0 projections in an ESM that includes Antarctic ice-shelf cavities, the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) v2.1. The simulations have active ocean, sea-ice, atmosphere, land and river components. The model domain has 12 km horizontal resolution around Antarctica, which is adequate for capturing dynamics in the larger ice-shelf cavities, melt fluxes aggregated across Antarctic regions, and water masses across most of the Antarctic continental shelf. The projections show significant warming and freshening of water masses on the Antarctic continental shelf, a deepening and poleward shift of the Amundsen Sea Low (ASL), and a significant increase in Antarctic melting through the 20th and 21st centuries. We also see a significantly more modest drift in water-mass properties and melt rates in our control simulation with constant 1950 conditions from which the historical runs were branched. In addition to providing an estimate of future melting and other changes in regional and global climate under SSP3-7.0, these simulations are also a steppingstone to coupled ice sheet-ocean simulations planned for the near future. We briefly discuss these plans and the coupling strategy that we are developing.

We articulate a scientific vision and roadmap for the development of improved Earthquake Rupture Forecast (ERF) models, which are one of the two main modeling components used in modern seismic hazard and risk analysis. One primary future objective is to provide fully time-dependent models that include both elastic rebound and spatiotemporal clustering nationwide, which can be particularly important for shorter-term hazard and risk considerations (e.g., earthquake insurance products). We also discuss the importance and perennial challenges associated with quantifying epistemic uncertainties, including those associated with deformation-model slip rates, unquantified sampling errors with respect to off-fault seismicity, and any spatial covariances. The need for more physics-based approaches is also emphasized, as is the benefit of adding model valuation (quantifying usefulness) to our verification and validation protocols. Given the multidisciplinary and system-level nature of this activity, modular design is critical. Future updates will also draw from best-available science by both the U.S. Geological Survey and the external community. The primary goal of this article is to highlight plans that guide research and facilitate community engagement with model development, especially with respect to lowering the entry barrier for early-career scientists and engineers. The article is written so readers can focus on the sections that interest them most (see Manuscript Organization section), with the Introduction and the Discussion section providing a stand-alone overview and summary, respectively.

US Geological Survey (USGS) National Seismic Hazard Models (NSHMs) are used extensively for seismic design regulations in the United States and earthquake scenario development, as well as risk assessment and mitigation for both buildings and infrastructure. This 2023 update of the long-term, time-independent Alaska NSHM includes substantial changes to both the earthquake rupture forecast (ERF) and ground motion models (GMMs). The ERF includes numerous additions to the finite-fault model, considers two deformation models, and introduces updated declustering and smoothing algorithms in the gridded background seismicity model. For the Alaska–Aleutian subduction zone, megathrust earthquakes occur on an updated structural and segmentation model, and the moment magnitude (M) 8+ rupture and rate model include a logic tree branch that considers slip rates derived from geodetic models of interface coupling. The megathrust model considers multiple models of down-dip width, and magnitudes are computed using newly developed scaling relations. For subduction intraslab events and subduction interface events with M < 7, the 2023 update uses a smoothed seismicity model with rupture depths derived from Slab2. The 2023 model updates GMMs in all tectonic settings using the recently published Next Generation Attenuation Subduction (NGA-Sub) GMMs for subduction interface and intraslab events, and the NGA-West2 GMMs for active crustal settings. Collectively, additions and updates to the Alaska NSHM result in hazard increases across most of south-central Alaska relative to the previous model, published in 2007. These changes are primarily due to the adoption of updated rate models for the large-magnitude interface events and the NGA-Sub GMMs that have much higher aleatory variability (sigma), consistent with global observations, and that include models of epistemic uncertainty.

We present the 2023 U.S. Geological Survey time -independent earthquake rupture forecast for the conterminous United States, which gives authoritative estimates of the magnitude, location, and time -averaged frequency of potentially damaging earthquakes throughout the region. In addition to updating virtually all model components, a major focus has been to provide a better representation of epistemic uncertainties. For example, we have improved the representation of multifault ruptures, both in terms of allowing more and less fault connectivity than in the previous models, and in sweeping over a broader range of viable models. An unprecedented level of diagnostic information has been provided for assessing the model, and the development was overseen by a 19 -member participatory review panel. Although we believe the new model embodies significant improvements and represents the best available science, we also discuss potential model limitations, including the applicability of logic tree branch weights with respect different types of hazard and risk metrics. Future improvements are also discussed, with deformation model enhancements being particularly worthy of pursuit, as well as better representation of sampling errors in the gridded seismicity components. We also plan to add time -dependent components, and assess implications with a wider range of hazard and risk metrics.

We present earthquake scenarios developed to accompany the release of the 2023 update to the US Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM). Scenarios can serve a range of local and regional needs, from developing proactive-targeted mitigation strategies for minimizing impending risk to aiding emergency management planning. These deterministic scenarios can also be used to communicate seismic hazard and risk to audiences who are not well versed in methods, such as probabilistic seismic hazard analyses. Specifically, we discuss the scenarios developed, challenges, and lessons learned in the development process, and how this work aided the development of the 2023 NSHM itself. In total, 28 scenarios were developed for Hawaii, Utah, Alaska, and Virginia considering the 2023 NSHM science, past scenario efforts, and input from local experts and stakeholders. Finally, we investigate how NSHM modeling decisions can change estimated impacts to Utah and Hawaii in more detail showing, for example, that a shallower dip of the Wasatch fault under Salt Lake City can increase predicted ground-motion intensities and therefore estimated losses and deaths.

The US Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Models (NSHMs) are used to calculate earthquake ground-shaking intensities for design and rehabilitation of structures in the United States. The most recent 2014 and 2018 versions of the NSHM for the conterminous United States included major updates to ground-motion models (GMMs) for active and stable crustal tectonic settings; however, the subduction zone GMMs were largely unchanged. With the recent development of the next generation attenuation-subduction (NGA-Sub) GMMs, and recent progress in the utilization of “M9” Cascadia earthquake simulations, we now have access to improved models of ground shaking in the US subduction zones and the Seattle basin. The new NGA-Sub GMMs support multi-period response spectra calculations. They provide global models and regional terms specific to Cascadia and terms that account for deep-basin effects. This article focuses on the updates to subduction GMMs for implementation in the 2023 NSHM and compares them to the GMMs of previous NSHMs. Individual subduction GMMs, their weighted averages, and their impact on the estimated mean hazard relative to the 2018 NSHM are discussed. The updated logic trees include three of the new NGA-Sub GMMs and retain two older models to represent epistemic uncertainty in both the median and standard deviation of ground-shaking intensities at all periods of interest. Epistemic uncertainty is further represented by a three-point logic tree for the NGA-Sub median models. Finally, in the Seattle region, basin amplification factors are adjusted at long periods based on the state-of-the-art M9 Cascadia earthquake simulations. The new models increase the estimated mean hazard values at short periods and short source-to-site distances for interface earthquakes, but decrease them otherwise, relative to the 2018 NSHM. On softer soils, the new models cause decreases to the estimated mean hazard for long periods in the Puget Lowlands basin but increases within the deep Seattle portion of this basin for short periods relative to the 2018 NSHM.

We demonstrate a formulation of the Azouani-Olson-Titi (AOT) algorithm in the MPAS-Ocean implementation of the primitive equations of the ocean, presenting global ocean simulations with realistic coastlines and bathymetry. We observe an exponentially fast decay in the error before reaching a certain error level, which depends on the terms involved and whether the AOT feedback control term was handled implicitly or explicitly. A wide range of errors was observed for both schemes, with the implicit scheme typically exhibiting lower error levels, depending on the specific physical terms included in the model. Several factors seem to be contributing to this wide range, but the vertical mixing term is demonstrated to be an especially problematic term. This study provides insight into the promises and challenges of adapting the AOT algorithm to the setting of high-resolution, realistic ocean models.

Several rupture directivity models (DMs) have been developed in recent years to describe the near-source spatial variations in ground-motion amplitudes related to propagation of rupture along the fault. We recently organized an effort toward incorporating these directivity effects into the US Geological Survey (USGS) National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM), by first evaluating the community’s work and potential methods to implement directivity adjustments into probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA). Guided by this evaluation and comparison among the considered DMs, we selected an approach that can be readily implemented into the USGS hazard software, which provides an azimuthally varying adjustment to the median ground motion and its aleatory variability. This method allows assessment of the impact on hazard levels and provides a platform to test the DM amplification predictions using a generalized coordinate system, necessary for consistent calculation of source-to-site distance terms for complex ruptures. We give examples of the directivity-related impact on hazard, progressing from a simple, hypothetical rupture, to more complex fault systems, composed of multiple rupture segments and sources. The directivity adjustments were constrained to strike–slip faulting, where DMs have good agreement. We find that rupture directivity adjustments using a simple median and aleatory adjustment approach can affect hazard both from a site-specific perspective and on a regional scale, increasing ground motions off the end of the fault trace up to 30%–40% and potentially reducing it for sites along strike. Statewide hazard maps of California show that the change in shaking along major faults can be a factor to consider for assessing long-period [Formula: see text] near-source effects within the USGS NSHM going forward, reaching up to 10%–20%. Finally, we suggest consideration of minimum parameter ranges and baseline requirements as future DMs are developed to minimize single approach adaptations to enable more consistent application within both ground motion and hazard studies.

The US National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) was updated in 2023 for all 50 states using new science on seismicity, fault ruptures, ground motions, and probabilistic techniques to produce a standard of practice for public policy and other engineering applications (defined for return periods greater than ∼475 or less than ∼10,000 years). Changes in 2023 time-independent seismic hazard (both increases and decreases compared to previous NSHMs) are substantial because the new model considers more data and updated earthquake rupture forecasts and ground-motion components. In developing the 2023 model, we tried to apply best available or applicable science based on advice of co-authors, more than 50 reviewers, and hundreds of hazard scientists and end-users, who attended public workshops and provided technical inputs. The hazard assessment incorporates new catalogs, declustering algorithms, gridded seismicity models, magnitude-scaling equations, fault-based structural and deformation models, multi-fault earthquake rupture forecast models, semi-empirical and simulation-based ground-motion models, and site amplification models conditioned on shear-wave velocities of the upper 30 m of soil and deeper sedimentary basin structures. Seismic hazard calculations yield hazard curves at hundreds of thousands of sites, ground-motion maps, uniform-hazard response spectra, and disaggregations developed for pseudo-spectral accelerations at 21 oscillator periods and two peak parameters, Modified Mercalli Intensity, and 8 site classes required by building codes and other public policy applications. Tests show the new model is consistent with past ShakeMap intensity observations. Sensitivity and uncertainty assessments ensure resulting ground motions are compatible with known hazard information and highlight the range and causes of variability in ground motions. We produce several impact products including building seismic design criteria, intensity maps, planning scenarios, and engineering risk assessments showing the potential physical and social impacts. These applications provide a basis for assessing, planning, and mitigating the effects of future earthquakes.

We update the ground-motion characterization for the 2023 National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for the conterminous United States. The update includes the use of new ground-motion models (GMMs) in the Cascadia subduction zone; an adjustment to the central and eastern United States (CEUS) GMMs to reduce misfits with observed data; an updated boundary for the application of GMMs for shallow, crustal earthquakes in active tectonic regions (i.e. western United States (WUS)) and stable continental regions (i.e. CEUS); and the use of improved models for the site response of deep sedimentary basins in the WUS and CEUS. Site response updates include basin models for the California Great Valley and for the Portland and Tualatin basins, Oregon, as well as long-period basin effects from three-dimensional simulations in the Greater Los Angeles region and in the Seattle basin; in the CEUS, we introduce a broadband (0.01- to 10-s period) amplification model for the effects of the passive-margin basins of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. In addition, we summarize progress on implementing rupture directivity models into seismic hazard models, although they are not incorporated in the 2023 NSHM. We implement the ground-motion characterization for the 2023 NSHM in the US Geological Survey’s code for probabilistic seismic hazard analysis, nshmp-haz-v2, and present the sensitivity of hazard to these changes. Hazard calculations indicate widespread effects from adjustments to the CEUS GMMs, from the incorporation of Coastal Plain amplification effects, and from the treatment of shallow-basin and out-of-basin sites in the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles region, as well as locally important changes from subduction-zone GMMs, and from updated and new WUS basins.

As part of the U.S. Geological Survey 's 2023 50 -State National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM), we make modest revisions and additions to the central and eastern U.S. (CEUS) fault -based seismic source model that result in locally substantial hazard changes. The CEUS fault -based source model was last updated as part of the 2014 NSHM and considered new information from the Seismic Source Characterization for Nuclear Facilities (CEUS-SSCn) Project. Since then, new geologic investigations have led to revised fault and fault -zone inputs, and the release of databases of fault -based sources in the CEUS. We have reviewed these databases and made minor revisions to six of the current fault -based sources in the NSHM, as well as added five new fault -based sources. Implementation of these sources follows the current NSHM methodology for CEUS fault -based sources, as well as the incorporation of a new magnitude -area relationship and updated maximum magnitude and recurrence rate estimates following the methods used by the CEUS-SSCn Project. Seismic hazard sensitivity calculations show some substantial local changes in hazard ( -0.4 g to 1.1 g ) due to some of these revisions and additions, especially from the addition of the central Virginia, Joiner ridge, and Saline River sources and revisions made to the Meers and New Madrid sources.

We present a model of the lower seismogenic depth of earthquakes in the western United States (WUS) estimated using the hypocentral depths of events M > 1, a crustal temperature model, and historical earthquake rupture depth models. Locations of earth-quakes are from the Advanced National Seismic System Comprehensive Earthquake Catalog from 1980 to 2021 supplemented with seismicity in southern California for event hypocenters that were relocated by Hauksson et al. (2012) to obtain higher precision and better resolution in the model. We calculated the average depth of the deepest 10% of the merged catalog using an adaptive radius of 50 km or more. Along the San Andreas fault, the deepest seismogenic depths are located at 23 km around the Cholame segment, whereas the shallowest depths are located at about 10 km along the Rodgers Creek and Maacama faults. For the WUS outside California, the depth generally varies between 10 and 25 km with an average around 14 km but could extend to 35 km along Cascadia subduction zone. We find good agreement between the small-magnitude depths and rupture depths derived from coseismic slip of large earthquakes across the region. Our estimates are generally deeper than the previous seismogenic depths determined for the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, Version 3 model based on work by Petersen et al. (1996) who used seismicity cross sections along major fault zones in California. Our new seismogenic depth distribution correlates closely with crustal temper-ature derived from WUS heat flow (Blackwell et al., 2011). This correlation allowed us to develop a map of the brittle-ductile transition that we use to replace seismogenic depths in the model east of the Intermountain West Seismic Belt where the seismicity rate is low. This updated depth model is useful for recalibrating the lower geologic fault rupture depths, and constraining deformation and seismicity source models in updates of the U.S. Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Model.