A motion-based virtual reality (VR) bicycle simulator allows for steering and pedaling as input, while visual information and platform movements are provided as output. The simulator offers a potential means of safely experiencing mountain biking (MTB); however, the impact of complex multidirectional tilting of the bicycle on user experience remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of integrating tilt and pitch on users’ psychological experience during downhill cycling in a simulator. Twenty-one participants rode a simulator course designed to replicate a real MTB course and were instructed to pass through balls placed at ten turns (i.e., banks) along the course. Measurements were taken under two conditions: the nonmotion (NM) condition, in which the platform remained stationary, and the motion-based (M) condition, in which the platform moved in tilt and pitch according to the visual environment. After each condition, participants completed the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ), the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ), and the short version of the User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ-S). Eighteen participants completed both conditions. There was no significant difference in the SSQ and the UEQ-S between the two conditions. In the IPQ, only the subscale spatial presence was significantly higher in the M condition than in the NM condition. The platform’s tilt and pitch movements during downhill cycling in a VR bicycle simulator had only a minimal impact on simulator sickness, presence, and user experience. These results indicate that a platform without motion may be sufficient for rehearsing MTB downhill courses for individuals with no prior MTB experience.

In football, players frequently engage in scanning, which consists of clearly distinguishable head-orientation changes that support visual exploration and decision-making under time pressure. While previous studies have examined scanning using video-based notational analysis or laboratory-based motion sensors, it remains unclear how scan counts based on angular velocity thresholds align with those obtained from the notational analysis during actual gameplay. This study aimed to examine the correspondence between motion sensor-based scan counts obtained using different angular velocity thresholds and scan counts obtained from video-based notational analysis during field-based football gameplay. Twelve university-level football players participated in a 6-on-6 small-sided game while wearing head-mounted inertial measurement units. Head rotation data were analyzed using four angular velocity thresholds (125, 200, 250, and 300 deg/s). Detection results were compared with the notational analysis conducted by experienced evaluators, who counted clearly distinguishable bidirectional changes in head orientation. Agreement was assessed using ANOVA, Bland–Altman plots, and concordance correlation coefficients (CCC), while detection performance was evaluated using recall, precision, and F1-score. Results showed that the 250 deg/s threshold produced scan counts that did not significantly differ from the notational analysis, yielded the smallest mean difference and narrowest limits of agreement, and achieved the highest CCC (0.932) as well as acceptable detection performance (F1-score = 0.753). In contrast, the previously used 125 deg/s threshold significantly overestimated scan counts relative to the notational analysis and demonstrated weaker agreement and lower detection accuracy. These findings indicated that, among the thresholds examined, a 250 deg/s threshold provided the closest correspondence with notational analysis when quantifying scans during field-based football gameplay. The present results suggest the importance of calibrating kinematic detection thresholds to the dynamic demands of actual sports contexts and highlight the potential of motion sensor technology for analyzing scanning in situ.

Mastering the skills to ride a bicycle enables the transfer of those skills to other types of bicycles. However, the learning process involved in transferring cycling skills to a different kind of bicycle remains unclear. This study investigated the coordination and stability in movements and gaze behaviours related to cycling skill improvement on a novel type of bicycle that the participants had never experienced before. Nineteen participants practiced cycling with a BMX on a straight and narrow path for 20 trials daily for two days. We calculated the deviation rate from the path as an indicator of cycling skill. Body and bicycle movements were measured using motion sensors, while eye positions were measured using a mobile eye-tracking device. These indicators were compared before and after practice. The deviation rate decreased with practice. Between before and after practice, the cross-correlation coefficient between the steering and frame roll angles increased, these angles' standard deviations decreased. However, gaze direction, the stability of gaze behaviour, and the characteristics of periodic eye movements did not significantly change. The results suggest that practice with a novel bicycle involves progression through the stages of coordination and stabilisation of steering and frame roll.

Decision-making in baseball fielding requires fast and accurate assessments of multiple visual cues, including ball trajectory and runner movement. This study investigated the relationship between gaze behavior and decision-making performance during defensive plays, specifically focusing on the selection of the appropriate base to throw to. Twenty collegiate baseball fielders participated in a video-based decision-making task using a head-mounted display. Participants viewed first-person perspective videos simulating a defensive situation with one out and a runner on third base and were asked to decide whether to throw to first base or home plate. Decisions were made by pressing a button during the interval between bat–ball contact and ball capture, reflecting the real-time constraints of actual gameplay. Decision accuracy, decision time, and response bias were measured. Eye-tracking data were also collected to analyze gaze behavior such as the number of fixations and gaze transitions between areas of interest. Results revealed that decision accuracy peaked when participants made an intermediate number of fixations per trial. Gaze transition patterns showed that participants initially fixated on the ball in most trials. Trials in which participants gazed at home plate, runner, or other areas were associated with significantly longer decision times. Moreover, trials involving gaze transitions to other areas were associated with significantly lower decision accuracy. Regarding response bias, participants who spent more time viewing the ball were more likely to make assertive throw decisions by choosing home plate, whereas those who made more gaze transitions between areas of interest tended to make more conservative choices, such as selecting first base. These findings suggest that efficient gaze behavior, characterized by an optimal number of fixations and appropriate allocation of gaze, are crucial for making fast and accurate decisions during defensive plays in baseball.

In real-world locomotion, manipulation of visual information influence movement. It has been suggested that both near and distant visual information are used to control locomotion. However, it has not yet been clarified whether the two archetypal conditions of visual behavior differently affect dynamic balance during cycling. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the effect of instructions regarding gaze direction on stability of cycling movements and accuracy of cycling trajectory. Twenty participants rode as straight as possible along a 20-m straight line at a low speed (2.4 ± 1.4 m/s), performing five trials for each condition. Participants were instructed to gaze at a far target at eye level (distant-upper condition), at a far target on the ground (distant-bottom condition), and at the line on the cycling path (near condition). The results showed that the standard deviation (SD) of the steering angle in the distant-bottom condition was smaller than that in the near condition. The SDs of lateral head flexion in the distant-upper and distant-bottom conditions were smaller than that in the near condition. The accuracy of the cycling trajectory was highest for near, followed by distant-bottom and distant-upper conditions, in that order. These findings suggest that directing gaze toward the far area during cycling enhances the stability of movements, whereas directing gaze toward the near area contributes to the control of the position in the path.

In ball game sports, binocular visual function is important for accurately perceiving the distance of various objects in visual space. However, the temporal coordination of binocular eye movements during saccades has not been investigated extensively in athletes. The purpose of the present study was to compare the characteristics found in the interocular timing differences in horizontal saccades between ball game players. The participants included 32 university baseball players and 54 university soccer players. They were asked to shift their gaze to the onset of the light-emitting diodes located at 10 deg of visual field eccentricity to the left and right and alternated every 2 s. Horizontal movements of the left and right eyes were recorded separately with the electro-oculogram. Temporal variables for each eye were calculated with digital differentiation, and timing differences between the left and right eyes were compared between participant groups. The overall results showed significant interocular differences between left and right eye movements for the temporal variables of binocular saccades. The comparison between the participant groups revealed that baseball players had smaller interocular timing differences between the left and right eyes than soccer players in the onset time, time to peak velocity, duration, and peak velocity. These results suggest that baseball players have a higher degree of temporal coordination in binocular eye movements, particularly during the initial phase of horizontal saccades, compared to soccer players. This enhanced coordination might be attributable to the sport-specific visual demands of baseball, where players require precise stereoscopic vision to track a small high-speed ball within their visual space.

The visual field is influenced by movements of the body, head, and eye movements during self-motion. Therefore, compensatory eye movements that stabilize the visual field are crucial for perceptual-motor control. In cycling, a type of eye movement known as optokinetic nystagmus may help prevent visual blur and support the use of retinal flow for maintaining dynamic balance. This study aimed to examine the impact of visual environmental manipulation on dynamic balance control in cycling by altering gaze behavior. Participants cycled under three conditions and were instructed to ride as slowly as possible while staying on the path. In the control condition, they cycled along a striped path. In the laser condition, they cycled on the same path while fixating on a laser point projected 4 m ahead of the bicycle. In the monochrome condition, participants cycled along a plain white path. Each condition consisted of five trials. The results showed that the amplitude at the peak frequency of eye movements was significantly lower in the laser condition compared to the control and monochrome conditions. In addition, the cycling distance and duration were significantly shorter in the laser condition compared to the control condition. There were no significant differences in eye movements or cycling performance between the control and monochrome conditions. These results suggest that fixating on a laser point projected at a constant distance ahead suppresses the amplitude of eye movements and impairs balance control during cycling. Natural gaze behavior is likely to be an important factor for cycling safely.

Although cycling is a fundamental skill acquired by a lot of people, insights into the factors contributing to the learning of more stable cycling remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the aspects of movement that contribute to cycling stability through the skill acquisition process in non-cyclists. Nineteen participants practiced cycling on a straight and narrow path for 20 trials daily for 2 days. After the practice session, the movements related to steering, frame roll, and head were stabilized. In the pre-test, multiple regression analysis showed that steering, head angle, frequency of optokinetic nystagmus, and cycling speed were explanatory variables for the deviation rate as the dependent variable in the regression equation. In the retention test, the head roll tilt, head angle, head angle range, and optokinetic response duration were included. These findings suggest that the strategy shifted from minimizing the variability of steering to stabilizing head movements as participants improved their cycling skills. Furthermore, the periodic eye movements and the act of lowering the head were identified as contributing factors to cycling stability in both pre- and retention tests.

Cycling requires the integration of gaze behaviors, body movements, and bicycle movements. However, whether these movements contribute to skilled cycling performance, such as cycling on straight and narrow paths are uncertain. The present study aimed to differentiate optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) from vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) that characterize the relationship between eye and head movements during cycling on straight and narrow path, and to identify gaze behaviors, body movements, and bicycle movements that contribute to cycling performance. Nineteen participants with no prior competitive experience cycled three times on a 12-cm wide path. The participants were asked to avoid deviating from the path as much as possible. The measured variables were gaze behavior in a sagittal plane, body movement, and bicycle movement. As a result, OKN was observed among 16 of the 19 participants. The cross-correlation between the eye and head did not show negative value, indicating the absence of VOR. These results suggest that the participants moved their eyes while keeping their heads stable during cycling on a straight and narrow path. In the results of the multiple regression analysis, the variables with small standard deviations (SD) of the steering angle and upward eye position were related to a lower deviation from the path. These results suggest that a small SD of the steering angle and directed gaze in the forward direction may contribute to skilled cycling.

Blind football players use head movements to accurately identify sound location when trapping a ball. Accurate sound localization is likely important for motor learning of ball trapping in blind football. However, whether head movements affect the acquisition of ball-trapping skills remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined the effect of head movements on skill acquisition during ball trapping. Overall, 20 sighted male college students were recruited and assigned to one of the following two groups: the conventional training group, where they were instructed to move leftward and rightward to align their body with the ball’s trajectory, and the head-movement-focused group, where they were instructed to follow the ball with their faces until the ball touched their feet, in addition to the conventional training instructions. Both groups underwent a 2-day training for ball trapping according to the specific instructions. The head-movement-focused group showed a decrease in errors in ball trapping at near distances and with larger downward head rotations in the sagittal plane compared to the conventional training group, indicating that during the skill acquisition training for ball trapping, the sound source can be localized more accurately using larger head rotations toward the ball. These results may help beginner-level players acquire better precision in their movements while playing blind football.

The purpose of the present study was to compare learners' movement variability while maintaining balance and the ability to recover balance using the kinesthetic-experiential learning (KEL) method of implicit learning and the model-mastery learning (MML) method of explicit learning. The participants were 29 healthy university students. They were randomly divided into two groups (KEL and MML). They were required to balance both knees on an exercise ball. The balancing time and the ability to recover their balance were measured using motion capture. Results indicated that balancing time was significantly improved for both learning methods. Regarding the learners' movements while maintaining balance, they maintained balance while moving in the KEL method, whereas they maintained balance by keeping the entire body stationary in the MML method. Concerning the ability to recover, the KEL method improved the balance recovery ability more effectively than the MML method. Therefore, we concluded that using the KEL method at the initial stage of learning improves learners' balance recovery ability and increases movement variability.

The study aimed to investigate the effects of kinesthetic experiences on balance ability (using exercise balls for gymnastics) and on interpersonal relationships by comparing two different learning methods. Participants learning gymnastics during physical education classes at university were randomly allocated to a kinesthetic-experiential learning (KEL) group ( n = 20) or a model-mastery learning (MML) group ( n = 22). Both groups practiced a balancing exercise on an exercise ball. In the KEL group, participants were asked to pay attention to the sensations of their body on the ball in a variety of movements, whereas the MML group was asked to reproduce the instructions of the ideal model provided by an instructor. The results showed that the participants in the KEL group had longer balancing time on the exercise ball, higher self-evaluation scores, and higher interpersonal relationship scores than those in the MML group, although the objective evaluations of postural stability were better in the MML group than in the KEL group. These findings suggest that methods that provide learners with versatile kinesthetic experiences through a variety of movements are more effective for enhancing balance ability and interpersonal relationships.

To further develop three-dimensional (3D) applications, it is important to elucidate the negative effects of 3D applications on the human body and mind. Thus, this study investigated differences in the effects of visual fatigue on cognition and brain activity using visual and auditory tasks induced by watching a 1-h movie in two dimensions (2D) and 3D. Eighteen young men participated in this study. Two conditions were randomly performed for each participant on different days, namely, watching the 1-h movie on television in 2D (control condition) and 3D (3D condition). Before and after watching the 1-h movie on television, critical flicker fusion frequency (CFF: an index of visual fatigue), and response accuracy and reaction time for the cognitive tasks were determined. Brain activity during the cognitive tasks was evaluated using a multi-channel near-infrared spectroscopy system. In contrast to the control condition, the decreased CFF, and the lengthened reaction time and the decreased activity around the right primary somatosensory cortex during Go/NoGo blocks in the visual task at post-viewing in the 3D condition were significant, with significant repeated measures correlations among them. Meanwhile, in the auditory task, the changes in cognitive performance and brain activity during the Go/NoGo blocks were not significant in the 3D condition. These results suggest that the failure or delay in the transmission of visual information to the primary somatosensory cortex due to visual fatigue induced by watching a 3D movie reduced the brain activity around the primary somatosensory cortex, resulting in poor cognitive performance for the visual task. This suggests that performing tasks that require visual information, such as running in the dark or driving a car, immediately after using a 3D application, may create unexpected risks in our lives. Thus, the findings of this study will help outlining precautions for the use of 3D applications.

The present study examined the influence of attentional focus on learning long-distance throwing. Twenty-one participants (14 male and 7 female, mean age: 21.9±1.8 years) completed the pre-test, 10 learning sessions (each 15 trials), and post-test. In the learning sessions, they were assigned to one of three groups of attentional focus: the wrist internal, torso internal, and external focus groups. On the pre-test and post-test, they executed three trials under all three conditions of attentional focus. Results showed that the effect of learning sessions on throwing distance differed by attentional focus. For the two internal focus groups, the throwing distances were longer in the last session than the first, while the external focus group did not show an effect of learning sessions. On the pre-test and post-test, the external focus condition showed the longest throwing distance of all attentional focus conditions. In addition, there was a positive correlation between the rates of increase in throwing distance and release angle, but no correlation between the rates of increase in throwing distance and initial velocity. These results suggest that internal focus is more effective than external focus in learning long-distance throwing, whereas external focus is more effective for long-distance throwing performance.

The present study aimed to examine the influence of game situation information, such as inning and score, on the decision making of baseball catchers in a situation requiring directions to teammates on a play. Collegiate baseball catchers (n = 10) watched a series of video images, recorded from the catcher’s viewpoint, showing a simulated sacrifice bunt to the pitcher with no outs and a runner at first base. The participants made a decision about instructing the pitcher where to throw the ball (i.e., toward either first or second base) by pressing a button at an appropriate time. The study was conducted under 4 conditions: 1) same score at the top of the first inning, 2) a one-run behind at the top of the ninth inning, 3) same score at the top of the ninth inning, and 4) a one-run lead at the top of the ninth inning. The participants verbally reported their decision-making strategy. The results suggested that the catcher’s judgment bias changed depending on the game situation. It was less biased toward first base when their team was behind at the end of the game, compared to when both teams had the same score at the start of the game and when the catcher’s team was in the lead at the end. Also, catchers consciously selected a different decision-making strategy depending on the game situation. When both the teams had the same score at the start of the game and when the catcher’s team was leading at the end, there was a strong tendency to avoid the risk of a losing score due to an erroneous decision. This tendency was weak when both teams had the same score and when the catcher’s team was behind at the end. Furthermore, the catcher’s judgment bias changed depending on the consciously selected decision-making strategy. These results suggest that catchers consciously choose a different decision-making strategy depending on the game situation, and that their judgment bias changes according to their choice.

In blind football, players predict the sound location of a ball to underpin the success of ball trapping. It is currently unknown whether blind footballers use head movements as a strategy for trapping a moving ball. This study investigated characteristics of head rotations in blind footballers during ball trapping compared to sighted nonathletes. Participants performed trapping an approaching ball using their right foot. Head and trunk rotation angles in the sagittal plane, and head rotation angles in the horizontal plane were measured during ball trapping. The blind footballers showed a larger downward head rotation angle, as well as higher performance at the time of ball trapping than did the sighted nonathletes. However, no significant differences between the groups were found with regards to the horizontal head rotation angle and the downward trunk rotation angle. The blind footballers consistently showed a larger relative angle of downward head rotation from an early time point after ball launching to the moment of ball trapping. These results suggest that blind footballers couple downward head rotation with the movement of an approaching ball, to ensure that the ball is kept in a consistent egocentric direction relative to the head throughout ball trapping.