This paper presents a new controller structure known as the proportional-integral proportional-double-retarded (PI-PR2) designed for discrete-time systems with time delay. The dominant pole placement technique, which is frequently encountered in control systems, is used as the primary design method. The design method starts that dominant poles are placed according to the requested performance characteristics of the closed-loop system (CLS), and the boundary of the other poles are determined as a circle with the help of the dominance coefficient. This boundary is transferred to the parameter plane, and the PIR2 controller parameter solution set is found. To take advantage of identifying the controller's zero position, the PIR2 controller is transformed into the PI-PR2 controller configuration. The proposed controller method is clarified via a simulation study and a comparison with several PID-type control methodologies documented in the existing literature.

This paper reviews modular and layered approaches to lateral vehicle motion control for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Autonomous Driving (AD) applications. Motivated by the growing need for scalable, reusable, and robust control architectures, the study systematically analyzes how existing academic and industrial contributions organize lateral control functionalities across four key domains: State and Parameter Estimation, Motion Limit Estimation, High-Level Control, and Low-Level Control. Special emphasis is placed on industry-backed implementations and emerging standardization efforts such as SAE J3131 and AUTOSAR. The review highlights practical advantages associated with functional decomposition, real-time constraint integration, and estimation-enabled control feasibility. By synthesizing insights from diverse sources, the work provides an architectural perspective that complements algorithmic advancements and supports scalable system integration for future ADAS and automated driving platforms.

Traffic intersections act as pivotal junctions where various streams of traffic intersect and intersecting movements occur. When traffic volumes are high, intersections that are efficiently designed and equipped with intelligent traffic control systems can optimize the movement of vehicles. Accordingly, the time spent by vehicles at intersections increases, and these vehicles cause the vehicles behind them to slow down. This study aims to enhance the efficacy of reservation-based intersection control for platoons comprising vehicles arriving at intersections and turning in various directions. To assess the impact of different platooning algorithms on both the average speed of vehicles within the platoons and the total time spent at intersections, simulations were conducted using the SUMO environment. These simulations observed variations in the average speed values of vehicles and the duration spent by vehicles at intersections. The simulation results showed that the proposed reservation-based platoon ordering algorithm significantly contributed to increasing the average speed and reducing waiting time.

Urban rail transport systems consume significant amounts of energy, which makes energy efficiency improvements essential for sustainable urban mobility. This paper analyzes the role of stationary energy storage systems (SESS) in improving the energy efficiency of urban rail transport systems. Various SESS technologies, such as lithium-ion batteries, are examined for their ability to store energy from regenerative braking and redistribute it during peak demand. Key factors such as headway, line gradient, regenerative energy amounts and receptivity of urban rail transport system are considered. The results provide a model proposal for optimizing the placement of stationary energy storage systems for energy flow management in urban rail transport systems. Simulation-based analysis and case studies show that integrating SESS can significantly optimize energy utilization in urban rail systems.

Abstract This paper extends the characteristic ratio approach using novel inequalities to ensure zero/low overshoot for linear‐time‐invariant systems with zeros. The extension provided by this paper is based on the maximally‐flatness property of a transfer function, where the square‐magnitude of the transfer function is ensured to be a low‐pass filter. In order to be able to design low‐order/fixed structure controllers, a partial pole‐assignment approach is used instead of the full pole‐assignment used in the Characteristic Ratio Assignment (CRA) method. The developed inequalities and additional stability conditions are combined into an optimization problem using time domain restrictions when necessary. Although the method given in the paper is general, particular inequalities are developed for PI and PI‐PD controller cases, due to their frequent use in industrial applications. Similarly, First‐Order‐Plus‐Delay‐Time (FOPDT) and Second‐Order‐Plus‐Delay‐Time (SOPDT) systems are considered specifically, since most of the practical systems can be approximated by one of these types. The study is extended to plants with uncertainties where a theorem is developed to decrease computation time dramatically. The benefits of the proposed methods are demonstrated by several examples.

A methodology for tuning the digital proportional-integral-retarded (PIR) controllers via the dominant pole placement approach is presented in this paper. Based on the desired performance criteria for the closed-loop system, the dominant poles are positioned, while the remaining poles are allocated to specific locations, ensuring they are sufficiently distant from the dominant poles. To achieve this, a desired polynomial is formulated, and the coefficient equalization method is applied. The presented approach is illustrated through an industrial application employing Kalman Filter (KF) based online system identification. The results show that both the PIR controller itself and the online system identification-based tuning methods exhibit satisfactory performance across various load characteristics, thereby affirming their validity and effectiveness for utilization in industrial control systems with delays. Copyright (c) 2024 The Authors.

ERTMS and ALSN signalling systems are two of the major signalling systems that are under operation in the world. With the introduction of technical specifications for interoperability, ERTMS promises increased passenger and freight attractiveness and seamless cross-border operation. The ERTMS specifications recognise ETCS as a Class A train protection system and other signalling systems in Europe as Class B train protection systems. The specifications further define “Specific Transmission Modules” (STMs) that enable trains with ETCS onboard to operate in railway lines that are equipped with Class B train protection systems. Although ALSN is classified as a Class B train protection system, ALSN STM is not defined yet. This paper focuses on proposing a novel ALSN STM that enables trains with ETCS onboard to operate in the countries where ALSN trackside is operational. The proposed STM unit is conceptualised as a system architecture, and a new standardised interface is introduced to enable signalling interoperability between ERTMS and ALSN.

Traffic congestion is a major concern for many metropolises. Although it is difficult to regulate traffic flow because of numerous complexities and uncertainties, the traffic congestion problem must be mitigated in order to reduce the environmental problems related to traffic and the time lost on the roads in big cities. Intelligent traffic control methods, the use of which is increasing with the development of new methods, as opposed to conventional methods, and provide more efficient solutions, especially in traffic intersections with high traffic density. In this paper, we propose a new agent-based Fuzzy Logic assisted traffic light signal timing for traffic intersections. Deep Q-Learning algorithms and Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) are used together in the proposed method. In this study, the proposed method and many traffic light control methods in the literature were simulated. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, some of the important metrics of evaluation such as traffic congestion, air pollution, and waiting time were used in the assessment of the simulation results. In addition, with the proposed method, it has been shown that the stability and robustness of the system are increased.

Bu çalışmada, iki giriş iki çıkışlı sistemler için ayrık zaman düzleminde oransal-integral oransal-çift gecikmeli (PI-PR2) kontrolör yapısı önerilmiştir. Tasarım yöntemi olarak kontrol sistemlerinde sıkça karşılaşılan baskın kutup atama yaklaşımı kullanılmıştır. İki giriş iki çıkışlı sistem bir ayrıştırıcı ile iki alt sisteme bölünmüş ve her bir alt sistem için PIR2 kontrolör tasarlanmıştır. Baskın kutuplar istenilen kapalı çevrim sistemin performans özelliklerine göre yerleştirilmiş ve kalan kutupların sınırı baskınlık katsayısı yardımıyla bir çember bölgesi olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu sınır bölgesi, parametre düzlemine aktarılmış ve ilgili kontrolör çözüm kümesi elde edilmiştir. Kontrolör sıfırının konumunun belirlenmesi avantajından yararlanmak için elde edilen PIR2 kontrolör PI-PR2 kontrolör yapısına çevrilmiştir. Önerilen tasarım yöntemi, bir benzetim çalışması üzerinden anlatılmış ve literatürdeki bazı kontrol yöntemleriyle karşılaştırılmıştır.

Robustness analysis of disturbance observer (DOB)-based control systems under parametric uncertainty is addressed in this study. A spherical polynomial family-based approach is adopted to analyse how much uncertainty can be tolerated, and to capture a unified framework for different cases including non-minimum phase plant and different nominal and perturbed plant structures. Results are validated using the value set concept for spherical polynomial families. The study has shown that if the relative degrees of the perturbed plant and the nominal plant are equal, then robustness is achievable even if the plant model is low order. Although non-minimum phase zeros limit the selection of DOB bandwidth, the robustness margin can be exactly determined for a given DOB bandwidth. Furthermore, it is shown that when the plant numerator and denominator have uncertain parameters, the robustness margin is not increased as with the DOB filter bandwidth in general.

Guidance commands generated by the proportional navigation guidance (PNG) law which constitutes the most popular one among the guidance laws applied on the guidance munition fired against predetermined targets are in the form of linear acceleration or angular speed as dictated by the relevant engagement geometry. As a result of the studies in which notable linear acceleration- and angle-based guidance laws are compared, it is seen the lateral acceleration values obtained with the PNG law occur in a lower level than the results of the angle-based guidance laws. However, the angle-based guidance laws lead to lower final miss distances. In this study, the PNG law is so adapted that it yields angle-based guidance commands and then it is applied upon a short-range air-to-surface missile against a maneuvering surface target as well as the velocity pursuit guidance law that is nothing but a version of PNG law, linear homing guidance law, and body pursuit guidance law. After the computer simulations, it is observed that the angle-based PNG law produces smaller final miss distances compared to its original form. The resulting lateral accelerations are in admissible levels. Also, the engagement duration values with the target happen to be almost the same.

Designing a robust controller for systems with parameter uncertainties is a complex and demanding task. Traditional deterministic and probabilistic approaches may fall short in providing efficient and satisfactory solutions. To address this challenge, we propose a semi-heuristic approach that exploits the Kharitonov theorem to establish an initial point for the gradient descent algorithm. Through an iterative optimization process that incorporates user-defined performance criteria, our approach provide a robust controller with respect to presence of system uncertainties. Numerical simulations validate the effectiveness of our proposed method and highlight its superiority in addressing robust control problems compared with auto-tuned ΡΠ) controller.

In this paper, a decentralized proportional–integral proportional–retarded (PI-PR) controller design method is proposed for two-input two-output (TITO) systems in discrete-time domain. The well-known dominant pole assignment (DPA) approach is used as the basis of the proposed approach. The controller design starts with the decoupling of a given TITO system into two sub-systems and continues with the design of proportional–integral–retarded (PIR) controllers for each sub-system, respectively. The feasible discrete PIR controller parameter set is obtained through the Nyquist stability criterion by considering the desired closed-loop performance specifications. The obtained PIR controllers are then implemented using a PI-PR control structure to avoid poor performance of the closed-loop system (CLS) transient response, which can be caused by the controller zeros. Moreover, a case study is presented to show the performance of the PI-PR controller in a simulation environment. It is shown that the proposed control structure provides a satisfactory performance when compared with the other proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control methods from the literature.

Bu çalışmada, kapalı çevrim sistemin zaman özelliklerinin istenen aralıkta kalması için baskın kutup bölgesi atama yöntemiyle ayrık zamanlı PI, PID ve PIR kontrolörlerin tasarlanması amaçlanmıştır. Öncelikle, kapalı çevrim sistemin baskın ve baskın olmayan kutuplarının konumlanmaları istenen bölgeler için sınır fonksiyonlarının belirlenmesi anlatılmıştır. Burada, sınır fonksiyonları için, baskın kutupların konumlanması istenen bölge ayrık zaman düzleminde sabit yarıçaplı iki çember ve sabit bir sönüm oranı eğrisi, kalan kutupların konumlanması istenen bölge ise sabit yarıçaplı bir çember kullanılır. Daha sonra, baskın kutup bölgesi atama probleminin çözüm yöntemi ayrık PI kontrolör için verilmiştir. Önerilen yöntem, kontrolörün bir parametresini sabitleyerek (𝐾𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 ∗ ) ayrık PID ve PIR kontrolörler için genişletilmiştir. PIR kontrolörde ek olarak gecikme parametresi ℎ’nin pozitif bir tamsayı olarak seçilmesi ile tasarıma başlanır. Önerilen yöntem, iki sistem üzerinden ayrık PI, PID ve PIR kontrolörler için anlatılmıştır.

In this study, it is aimed to design discrete time PI, PID and PIR controllers with the dominant pole region assignment method in order to have time domain characteristics of the closed loop system in the desired interval. First of all, determination of the boundary functions for the regions where the dominant and non-dominant poles of the closed-loop system are desired to be located are explained. Here, for the boundary functions, the region where the dominant poles are desired to be located are two circles of constant radius and a constant damping ratio curve in the discrete time domain, and the region where the remaining poles are desired to be located is a circle of constant radius. Then, solution method of dominant pole region assignment problem is given for discrete PI controller. The proposed method is extended for discrete PID and PIR controllers by fixing a parameter of the controller (K-p=k(p)*). In addition, the design starts with selecting the delay parameter h as a positive integer in the PIR controller. The proposed method is demonstrated for discrete PI, PID and PIR controllers via two systems.

In this study, a new discrete proportional integral-proportional retarded (D-PI-PR) controller design method is proposed. The proposed controller involves replacing the PD controller in the classical PI-PD control structure with a PR controller in discrete time and is implemented using dominant pole assignment, which is carried out by help of the modified Nyquist plot approach. The method starts with the determination of the controller parameters Ki and Kr in terms of the parameter Kp for a chosen delay parameter h after the computation of the desired dominant poles depending on the required closed-loop system performance criteria. The next step is to find the feasible Kp interval, in which the dominant pole assignment is guaranteed. To eliminate the unwanted impact of the controller zeros on the transient response of the system, the D-PIR structure is then transformed into the D-PI-PR structure. For the demonstration of the success of the proposed algorithm, first, second and third-order systems with time delays are used and the simulation results are compared with some other PID-type controllers design methods from the literature.

In this paper, a novel robust PID controller design technique is proposed for the parametric uncertain systems via the dominant pole assignment approach. In the closed‐loop, it is aimed that two poles are placed in the desired (dominant) region, and it is guaranteed that the remaining (unassigned) poles are located far away from the dominant pole region under all possible perturbations. The robust PID controller design technique is firstly given for the interval type characteristic polynomials with the help of vertex results. After that, the proposed method is generalized to cover the affine‐linear type characteristic polynomials. The method is based on the well‐known robust stability theorems and the generalized Nyquist theorem. The success of the proposed design technique is demonstrated on the control systems through simulation studies for both the interval and affine‐linear cases and compared with the other robust PID controllers from the literature. It is shown that the proposed robust PID controllers guarantee the desired pole configuration in the closed‐loop, and the closed‐loop performance specifications are satisfied even in the worst case.

Modern metro lines deploy Communication-Based Train Control (CBTC), which uses moving block that allows shorter headway times. Maximum operation speed, traction package's delays and reaction times, guaranteed emergency brake rate (GEBR), track gradients, and switch locations affect the headway time. This paper focuses on the GEBR (from 0.6 to 1.1 m/s 2 ) and track gradient values' (±4.0% with 0.5 steps) effect on the headway time. One hundred two combinations of both parameters are used in simulations carried out with Hi-SimuX Rail Simulation Suite, which can calculate safe braking distance as per IEEE standards. The paper quantifies the effects of the GEBR and the gradient values on the achieved headway time on a metro line that shows that GEBR, gradient, GEBR&Gradient might affect the headway respectively up to 43.83%, 43.17%, 51.5%. Also, a formula was produced defining the relationship between headway time, the GEBR, and gradient values.

Solving traffic congestion is one of the most important and complex problems, as it causes chaos in metropolitans, especially during rush hours. Traditional methods that continue to be used have proven to be inadequate, and as a result, the developing technology has affected all areas as well as the solutions to the traffic control problem. Intelligent Transportation Systems have emerged with the development of artificial intelligence and communication technologies. This study aims to reduce time in traffic by using an agent-based route planning method with deep Q learning. An agent which acts as a taxi in the generated traffic flow is also used to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed method in taxi service. It is aimed to be able to comprehend the actions to be implemented in order to complete the given task in an effective way with deep Q learning, considering criteria such as travel time and waiting time for passengers as performance criteria in different scenarios.

A vast number of contemporary studies investigate to resolve traffic congestion in completely autonomous vehicle scenarios. In scenarios when autonomous vehicles approach an intersection at which there are no traffic signals, they are able to drive in a coordinated manner without colliding and minimizing the consumption of fuel or electricity, which results in positive environmental effects. In order to achieve this, a multi-agent management system that includes Vehicle Agents (VAs) and an Intersection Agent (IA) has been used in this paper. In this method, the vehicles will share the area they expect to occupy within the intersection together with their estimated arrival time. The IA, in parallel, arranges reservations on a time-space basis and publicizes the results of reservations to the vehicles. Utilizing this information, individual VAs adjust their speed as efficiently as possible, e.g. reducing their speed or applying an efficient braking strategy, before reaching the intersection zone so that they do not need to stop and can pass through the intersection as quickly as possible. In this paper, the advantages of the proposed system are demonstrated by comparing it with some other types of traffic control systems.