We investigate the presence and spatial characteristics of the jet base emission in M87* at 230 GHz, enabled by the significantly enhanced (u,v) coverage in the 2021 Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observations. The integration of the 12−m Kitt Peak Telescope (USA) and NOEMA (France) stations into the array introduces two critical intermediate-length baselines to SMT (USA) and IRAM 30−m (Spain), providing sensitivity to emission structures at spatial scales of ∼250 μas and ∼2500 μas (∼ 0.02 pc and ∼ 0.02 pc). Without these new baselines, previous EHT observations of the source in 2017 and 2018 lacked the capability to constrain emission on large scales, where a “missing flux” of order ∼1 Jy is expected to reside. To probe these scales, we analyzed closure phases–robust against station-based gain calibration errors–and model the jet base emission using a simple Gaussian component offset from the compact ring emission at spatial separations > 100 μas. Our analysis revealed a Gaussian feature centered at (ΔRA ≈ 320 μas, ΔDec. ≈ 60 μ as), projected separation of ≈ 5500 AU, with an estimated flux density of only ∼60 mJy, implying that most of the missing flux identified in previous EHT studies had to originate from different, larger scales. Brighter emission at the relevant spatial scales is firmly ruled out, and the data do not favor more complex models. This component aligns with the inferred position of the large-scale jet and is therefore physically consistent with the emission of the jet base. While our findings point to detectable jet base emission at 230 GHz, the limited coverage provided by only two intermediate baselines limits our ability to robustly reconstruct its morphology. Consequently, we treated the recovered Gaussian as an upper limit on the jet base flux density. Future EHT observations with expanded intermediate baseline coverage will be essential to constrain the structure and nature of this component with higher precision.

Sagittarius A* ( the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, provides a unique laboratory to study accretion dynamics and plasma processes near the event horizon. We investigated the variability and polarization properties of using ALMA observations during the 2018 Event Horizon Telescope campaign. We analyzed high-cadence full-polarization light curves from ALMA at millimeter wavelengths, performed time-series analysis, and investigated the temporal behavior during an X-ray flare observed by on 2018 April 24. The variability characteristics are compared with expectations from standard accretion flow models. Chandra We find low variability in total intensity (σ/μ < 10%), but significantly higher variability in linear and circular polarization (∼ 30% and ∼ 50%, respectively). A time-series analysis reveals red-noise variability, with power spectral densities between -2 and -3 across all Stokes parameters. Polarized intensity shows stable intra-day timescales, while total intensity exhibits more variable timescales, suggesting distinct emission regions, with polarization likely arising from a coherent structure. On April 24, a statistically significant inter-band delay in polarized intensity coincides with a near-simultaneous X-ray and millimeter peak that deviates from the typical delayed flare scenario. This event also features enhanced millimeter variability and coherent polarization loop evolution. The observed simultaneity challenges standard models of transient synchrotron emission with cooling delays, favoring instead a scenario of continuous energy injection in an optically thin region. Our results offer new constraints on the physical mechanisms driving variability in and provide key observational input for refining theoretical models of accretion and plasma behavior in the vicinity of supermassive black holes.

The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a space-Earth very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) mission concept cur rently in formulation. The mission addresses fundamental black hole physics while aiming to detect and study the theoretically predicted 'photon ring' of light orbiting a black hole and produce the sharpest images from space in the history of astronomy. To achieve the required angular resolution, the BHEX instrument will extend the interferometer baseline of the Event Horizon Telescope beyond the diameter of the Earth, allowing for a hybrid VLBI observatory. The scientific objectives demand the ability to reach milliJansky sensitivity at frequen cies sufficiently high to mitigate the effects of synchrotron self-absorption and strong interstellar scattering. This necessitates a sophisticated instrument comprising a 76-320 GHz receiver system integrated with a spaceflight cryocooling unit, coupled to a large lightweight antenna, fast digital processing, high-stability frequency refer ence, and an ultra-high-speed laser downlink. The BHEX receiver front-end will observe simultaneously in two bands. The instrument's dual-band receivers, operating at frequencies between 76-106 GHz and 228-320 GHz, require cooling to 20 K and 4.5 K, respectively. Operating at 4.5 K is a driving requirement at 228-320 GHz due to the use of niobium-based superconducting detectors. The BHEX cryocooler design requirements for the instrument are discussed.

The n = 1 photon ring is a full image of the astrophysical source around a black hole, produced by photons that execute n ≈ 1 half-orbit around the event horizon on their way to an observer. The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a proposed extension of the Event Horizon Telescope to space that will target the n = 1 photon rings of the supermassive black holes M87* and Sgr A*. In this paper, we introduce a new interferometric observable that will be directly measurable on BHEX baselines and that admits a clear image-domain interpretation in terms of the photon ring brightness profile. Across a wide range of semianalytic equatorial emission models, we find that the azimuthal intensity profile of the ring can change depending on the astrophysics of the source, but its width w _b is weakly sensitive to these details—much like the ring shape, which has previously been identified as a probe of the spacetime geometry. Our survey suggests that interferometric measurements of the photon ring diameter and w _b can place constraints (to ≲20%) on the spin and inclination of a black hole with a known mass-to-distance ratio, such as Sgr A*. State-of-the-art numerical simulations support this finding, paving the way to a precise photon-ring-based spin measurement for Sgr A* with BHEX.

Context. The archetypal blazar 3C 279 has a prominent relativistic jet and strong broadband variability across the electromagnetic spectrum. In April 2017, the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observed 3C 279 with an unprecedented angular resolution of about 20 μas, accompanied by one of the most extensive quasi-simultaneous multiwavelength (MWL) campaigns ever conducted, spanning from radio to TeV γ -ray energies. Aims. Taking advantage of this comprehensive MWL dataset, we investigated the physical processes governing 3C 279, with a particular focus on the formation, collimation, and acceleration of its relativistic jet and on the origin of its high-energy emission, including the underlying particle-acceleration mechanisms. Methods. We analyzed individual observations and multiband light curves. We also constructed a new quasi-simultaneous spectral energy distribution covering frequencies from the radio band to very high-energy (VHE) γ rays. We further performed a phenomenological modeling using the turbulent extreme multi-zone (TEMZ) model to constrain the fundamental physical properties of the source. Results. The EHT observations reveal a clear flux increase in the innermost core between April 5 and 11, 2017. Over a broader time span, radio observations at longer wavelengths reveal concurrent enhancements in the core flux and polarization around mid-April, coinciding with the ejection of a superluminal knot moving at (25 ± 2) c . Record UV–optical flares with strong polarization variability occurred in late March, followed by high-energy γ -ray activity that declined before the end of the EHT observing period. During this time, the source remained in a low X-ray state and exhibited no detectable VHE emission. Conclusions. The results of the TEMZ modeling indicate that the broadband spectrum and variability of 3C 279 might be explained with a jet scenario in which turbulent plasma cells are compressed by a stationary conical shock. Nonetheless, alternative interpretations, such as magnetic reconnection or a moving shock-in-jet event, remain possible. This coordinated MWL campaign advances our understanding of the origin of the jet and γ -ray emission in the blazar 3C 279, and it also provides a comprehensive publicly available dataset that will serve as a valuable reference for future studies.

Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) images of the supermassive black hole M87* depict an asymmetric ring of emission. General relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) models of M87* and its accretion disk predict that the amplitude and location of the ring's peak brightness asymmetry should fluctuate due to turbulence in the source plasma. We compare the observed distribution of brightness asymmetry amplitudes to the simulated distribution in GRMHD models, across varying black hole spin a(*). We show that, for strongly magnetized (MAD) models, three epochs of EHT data marginally disfavor divided by a(*)divided by less than or similar to 0.2. This is consistent with the Blandford-Znajek model for M87's jet, which predicts that M87* should have nonzero spin. We show quantitatively how future observations could improve spin constraints and discuss how improved spin constraints could distinguish between differing jet-launching mechanisms and black hole growth scenarios.

General relativity predicts the presence of a thin, bright ring of light superimposed on the image of a black hole (the “photon ring”), whose geometry is sensitive to the spin of the black hole. Detecting this photon ring in observations of nuclear supermassive black holes would yield insight into gravity in the strong-field regime as well as their growth histories. The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a mission being developed to detect the photon ring for the first time, raising the question of how precisely we can constrain spin from its observations. We use the method of Fisher information matrices (FIMs) along with a simple dual-cone semi-analytic emission model to forecast BHEX spin posterior widths for the primary science targets (M87* and Sgr A*) in a variety of configurations. We find that BHEX can constrain the dimensionless spin of its targets to a precision of σ_a_*≪ 0.1 after 30 orbits, even in the presence of significant systematic errors. We validate our results via numerical checks for stability and robustness, as well as synthetic data cross-validation to assess handling of covariances and prior information in the FIM against a full posterior exploration.

The 2021 Event Horizon Telescope observations resolve the innermost jet region of the blazar 3C279 with unprecedented detail. The reconstructed images consistently reveal a compact core elongated nearly orthogonal to the large-scale jet axis. This rarely observed morphology recurs across multiple epochs and from 22-230 GHz and is therefore intrinsic rather than an imaging artifact. Geometric model fitting identifies several components with apparent speeds up to 10c, requiring bulk Lorentz factors greater than 10.3 and constraining viewing angles to extremely small values (smaller than one degree). Rest-frame brightness temperatures are systematically low (between 10^9 and 10^10 K), consistent with optically thin emission at 230 GHz. These results suggest that the jet bends toward the observer on sub-parsec scales, producing strong relativistic beaming. Possible drivers of the observed jet bending and temporal evolution include the jet's interaction with the interstellar medium, kink or Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, magnetic reconnection near the horizon, or binary-induced precession. However, the current temporal coverage of VLBI data remains insufficient to distinguish between these mechanisms. Continued multifrequency VLBI monitoring will be essential to constraining the dynamics and geometry of the jet base in 3C279.

The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a next-generation space very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) mission concept that will extend existing ground-based millimeter/submillimeter VLBI arrays to space. The Japanese astronomical community has contributed to BHEX mission development through the BHEX Japan Consortium, established in 2023. This paper provides a high-level summary of progress in Japan since 2024, including the establishment of the Black Hole Explorer Working Group (BHEX WG) at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), JAXA, to conduct the Japanese side of the Pre-Phase A mission studies. We outline recent advances in key instrument technologies, including concept design studies of a 4.5 K closed-cycle mechanical cryocooler and prototype development of an ultra-wideband 300 GHz Superconductor–Insulator–Superconductor (SIS) mixer for BHEX. We also describe ongoing upgrades to Japan's ground infrastructure to support 86 GHz observations with VERA and simultaneous 86+230 GHz observations with the Nobeyama 45 m Telescope.

In very-long baseline interferometric arrays, nearly co-located stations probe the largest scales and typically cannot resolve the observed source. In the absence of a large-scale structure, closure phases constructed with these stations are zero and, since they are independent of station-based errors, they can be used to probe data issues. Here, we show how these trivial closure phases become nonzero with a brightness distribution on smaller scales than their short baseline would suggest. When applied to sources that are made up of a bright compact and large-scale diffuse component, the trivial closure phases directly measure the centroid relative to the compact source and higher-order image moments. We present a technique to measure these image moments with minimal model assumptions and validate it on synthetic Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) data. We then apply this technique to 2017 and 2018 EHT observations of M87* and find a weak preference for extended emission in the direction of the large-scale jet. We also apply it to 2021 EHT data and measure the source centroid about 1 mas northwest of the compact ring, which is consistent with the jet observed at lower frequencies.

From magnetized plasma of relativistic jets to dust grains within protoplanetary disks, we study the emission mechanisms of radio sources via their rich spectral structure. Multifrequency synthesis (MFS) is a technique in which interferometric data at multiple frequencies are imaged simultaneously, resulting in a denser sampling of spatial scales, higher imaging fidelity, and tighter constraints on the source’s spectral structure and evolution. We describe a new method of MFS imaging reconstruction in a hierarchical interferometric Bayesian inference framework, CHIBI. The model parameterization is based on the spectral behavior of synchrotron radiation, the emission mechanism dominating the radio emission observed from galactic nuclei. We show results of this method on observations of jet sources from the MOJAVE catalog with the Very Long Baseline Array, and showcase the prospects for MFS imaging of M87* with simulated data from the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) and future expansions such as the next-generation EHT and the black hole Explorer. These demonstrations highlight the benefit of MFS to reconstruct higher-fidelity images and spectral index maps, producing scientifically richer results in a statistically grounded framework, implemented in Comrade.jl .

Context. The 2017 observing campaign of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) delivered the first very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) images at the observing frequency of 230 GHz, leading to a number of unique studies on black holes and relativistic jets from active galactic nuclei (AGN). In total, eighteen sources were observed, including the main science targets, Sgr A* and M 87, and various calibrators. Sixteen sources were AGN. Aims. We investigated the morphology of the sixteen AGN in the EHT 2017 data set, focusing on the properties of the VLBI cores: size, flux density, and brightness temperature. We studied their dependence on the observing frequency in order to compare it with the Blandford-Konigl (BK) jet model. In particular, we aimed to study the signatures of jet acceleration and magnetic energy conversion. Methods. We modeled the source structure of seven AGN in the EHT 2017 data set using linearly polarized circular Gaussian components (1749+096, 1055+018, BL Lac, J0132-1654, J0006-0623, CTA 102, and 3C 454.3) and collected results for the other nine AGN from dedicated EHT publications, complemented by lower frequency data in the 2-86 GHz range. Combining these data into a multifrequency EHT+ data set, we studied the dependences of the VLBI core component flux density, size, and brightness temperature on the frequency measured in the AGN host frame (and hence on the distance from the central black hole), characterizing them with power law fits. We compared the observations with the BK jet model and estimated the magnetic field strength dependence on the distance from the central black hole. Results. Our observations spanning event horizon to parsec scales indicate a deviation from the standard BK model, particularly in the decrease of the brightness temperature with the observing frequency. Only some of the discrepancies may be alleviated by tweaking the model parameters or the jet collimation profile. Either bulk acceleration of the jet material, energy transfer from the magnetic field to the particles, or both are required to explain the observations. For our sample, we estimate a general radial dependence of the Doppler factor delta proportional to r(<= 0.5). This interpretation is consistent with a magnetically accelerated sub-parsec jet. We also estimate a steep decrease of the magnetic field strength with radius B proportional to r(-3), hinting at jet acceleration or efficient magnetic energy dissipation.

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) has produced resolved images of the supermassive black holes (SMBHs) Sgr A* and M87*, which present the largest shadows on the sky. In the next decade, technological improvements and extensions to the array will enable access to a greater number of sources, unlocking studies of a larger population of SMBHs through direct imaging. In this paper, we identify 12 of the most promising sources beyond Sgr A* and M87* based on their angular size and millimeter flux density. For each of these sources, we make theoretical predictions for their observable properties by ray tracing general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic models appropriately scaled to each target’s mass, distance, and flux density. We predict that these sources would have somewhat higher Eddington ratios than M87*, which may result in larger optical and Faraday depths than previous EHT targets. Despite this, we find that visibility amplitude size constraints can plausibly recover masses within a factor of 2, although the unknown jet contribution remains a significant uncertainty. We find that the linearly polarized structure evolves substantially with the Eddington ratio, with greater evolution at larger inclinations, complicating potential spin inferences for inclined sources. We discuss the importance of 345 GHz observations, milli-Jansky baseline sensitivity, and independent inclination constraints for future observations with upgrades to the EHT through ground updates with the next-generation EHT program and extensions to space through the black hole Explorer.

We report three epochs of polarized images of M87* at 230 GHz using data from the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) taken in 2017, 2018, and 2021. The baseline coverage of the 2021 observations is significantly improved through the addition of two new EHT stations: the 12 m Kitt Peak Telescope and the Northern Extended Millimetre Array (NOEMA). All observations result in images dominated by a bright, asymmetric ring with a persistent diameter of 43.9 +/- 0.6 mu as, consistent with expectations for lensed synchrotron emission encircling the apparent shadow of a supermassive black hole. We find that the total intensity and linear polarization of M87* vary significantly across the three epochs. Specifically, the azimuthal brightness distribution of the total intensity images varies from year to year, as expected for a stochastic accretion flow. However, despite a gamma-ray flare erupting in M87 quasi-contemporaneously to the 2018 observations, the 2018 and 2021 images look remarkably similar. The resolved linear polarization fractions in 2018 and 2021 peak at similar to 5%, compared to similar to 15% in 2017. The spiral polarization pattern on the ring also varies from year to year, including a change in the electric vector position angle helicity in 2021 that could reflect changes in the magnetized accretion flow or an external Faraday screen. The improved 2021 coverage also provides the first EHT constraints on jet emission outside the ring, on scales of less than or similar to 1 mas. Overall, these observations provide strong proof of the reliability of the EHT images and probe the dynamic properties of the horizon-scale accretion flow surrounding M87*.

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) Collaboration recently published the first images of the supermassive black holes in the cores of the Messier 87 and Milky Way galaxies. These observations have provided a new means to study supermassive black holes and probe physical processes occurring in the strong-field regime. We review the prospects of future observations and theoretical studies of supermassive black hole systems. Current ground-based very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) arrays like the EHT and proposed future extensions like the next-generation Event Horizon Telescope will greatly enhance the capabilities of black-hole imaging interferometry. These enhancements will open up several previously inaccessible avenues of investigation, thereby providing important new insights into the properties of supermassive black holes and their environments. This review describes the current state of knowledge for five key science cases, summarising the unique challenges and opportunities for fundamental physics investigations that future mm/sub-mm VLBI developments will enable.

Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observations of M87* provide a means of constraining the parameters of both the black hole and its surrounding plasma. However, the intrinsic variability of the emitting material introduces major sources of uncertainty, which complicates parameter inference. The precise nature of this variability remains uncertain, and previous studies have largely relied on general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations to estimate its effects. Here, we fit a semianalytic, dual-cone model of the emitting plasma to multiple years of EHT observations to empirically assess the impact of intrinsic variability and improved array coverage on key measurements, including the black hole mass-to-distance ratio, spin, and viewing inclination. Despite substantial differences in the images of the two epochs, we find that the inferred mass-to-distance ratio remains stable and mutually consistent. The black hole spin is unconstrained for both observations, despite the improved baseline coverage in 2018. We show that intrinsic variability can contribute significantly to the inference error and that the inferred position angle and inclination of the black hole spin axis are discrepant between the two years. Our findings highlight both the promise and challenges of multiepoch EHT observations: while they can refine parameter constraints, they also reveal the limitations of simple parametric models in capturing the full source complexity. Our analysis—the first to fit semianalytic emission models to 2018 EHT observations—underscores the importance of quantifying data contributions from intrinsic variability in future high-resolution imaging studies of black hole environments and the role of repeated observations in quantifying these uncertainties.