BACKGROUND:Exposure to urban nature, especially woodland, is associated with better cognitive function and mental health in adolescents. However, it remains unclear how exposure to the natural environment contributes to educational achievement. We examined the longitudinal associations between exposure to natural-environment-type and adolescents' educational achievement, including the mediation effects of cognitive function, behavioural difficulties, and air pollution. METHODS:We analysed longitudinal data (n = 5323) from a large, representative Greater London adolescent cohort study (SCAMP). Natural environment types were characterised by greenspace and blue space at 11-12 years. Greenspace was further distinguished into woodland and grassland. Educational achievement at 16 years was based on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) via record linkage. Cognitive function (executive function and fluid intelligence), behavioural difficulties, and air pollution measured/modelled at 11-12 years were included as mediators. Data were analysed using multi-level linear regression model and multi-level mediation analysis. RESULTS:Higher exposure to greenspace was associated with higher GCSE maths grades. Higher exposure to woodland, but not grassland, was associated with higher GCSE maths, science, and English grades. Executive function and fluid intelligence partially mediated the associations between woodland exposure and GCSE grades (12.5% to 25.1% of associations mediated). The mediation effects of behavioural difficulties or air pollution were not evident. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings provide evidence to inform urban planning by showing the associations between different types of natural environments and educational achievement. These findings also offer important insights for creating healthy equitable cities for children and adolescents to live in.

The growing and pervasive use of social network sites (SNS) has raised concerns about their impact on adolescent mental health during this sensitive developmental phase. Existing longitudinal studies are constrained by methodological limitations and limited exploration of underlying mechanisms. We investigated the longitudinal associations between SNS use and depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents and whether sleep mediated these associations. We analysed longitudinal data from 2350 adolescents from 31 schools in London, participating in the Study of Cognition, Adolescents, and Mobile Phones (SCAMP). The exposure was self-reported duration of SNS use at baseline (aged 11–12 years). Outcomes were depressive and anxiety symptoms at follow-up, analysed as symptom severity and clinically significant symptoms (aged 13–15 years). The associations between SNS use and depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed via multi-level ordinal logistic regression (symptom severity) and logistic regression (clinically significant symptoms). The mediation effects of insufficient sleep, sleep onset latency, and sleep disturbance were assessed by mediation analysis. Compared to 0–30 min per day, more than 3 h per day of SNS use at baseline was associated with higher severity levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 1.47, 95

This systematic review and meta‐analysis examined randomised controlled trials and quasi‐experimental design studies targeting interventions to improve educational outcomes for students with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND). It identified 467 studies with 2891 outcomes for the narrative review, and 349 studies with 1758 outcomes were included in the meta‐analysis. Outcomes included in the meta‐analysis related to reading ( n = 1139), writing ( n = 279), maths ( n = 284), science ( n = 3) and general attainment ( n = 53). While there was substantial variability, targeted interventions for specific SEND groups improved educational outcomes by an average of 5 months compared to control groups, with positive impacts on reading, maths and writing. The setting (mainstream vs. special education) did not affect reading or writing outcomes, but interventions with students in mainstream settings showed larger gains in maths. Intervention effects were consistent regardless of delivery method, implementor or control group type. We discuss the implications of the findings for theory and practice, the research gaps identified and future directions. Rationale for this study: Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) often require targeted interventions to support their educational outcomes. Previous evaluations of targeted interventions have often focussed on one specific group of SEND or one specific outcome. Why the new findings matter: This review included randomised controlled and quasi‐experimental trials that evaluated targeted interventions across all categories of SEND. Across educational outcomes, pupils improved by an average of 5 months, with large variation evident. However, there were no consistent differences regarding delivery method, implementor or control group type. Implications for practitioners and policy makers: Despite gaps in the evidence, this review demonstrates that school setting and stage of education moderate the effectiveness of targeted interventions, with these effects varying across educational outcomes. These findings highlight the need for context‐sensitive approaches rather than one‐size‐fits‐all solutions. By clarifying how contextual factors influence intervention success, the review offers actionable insights, supporting evidence‐informed decisions to improve outcomes for students with SEND.

While the heterogeneity and co-occurrence of heritable neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and dyslexia remain issues of debate, these conditions are nevertheless all characterised by uneven cognitive profiles exhibiting strengths and weaknesses. There have been advances in understanding neural markers and genetic predictors of these conditions, but little insight into how DNA variation can influence functional brain development in such a way as to produce uneven cognitive profiles as developmental outcomes. Uneven cognitive profiles (e.g., across verbal and non-verbal intelligence) also characterise individual differences, and similarly, their genetic basis is little understood. Two main sources of uneven profiles appear possible: that there are regional genetic effects on brain development that act on mechanisms which play an influential role in the development of a particular cognitive or socioemotional ability (domain-specificity); or that genetic effects on brain development have a more widespread influence on neurocomputational properties, but the development of particular abilities is differentially sensitive to variation in those properties (domain-relevance). In this article, we present computational simulations that combine genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks to explore the second of these possibilities, domain relevance. Selection is used to alter the population frequency of alleles that influence the neurocomputational properties of a common substrate, under a polygenic model. Different regions of the substrate become specialised for developing different functions, modelled by five tasks. Across 20 generations, we assess how selection for a given task, which serves to tune substrate-wide neurocomputational properties in favour of this task, serves to alter the development of the other four tasks, which must employ the same range of neurocomputational properties. We demonstrate that such selection can enhance or impair acquisition in non-selected domains, depending on the computational demands of each task domain. We also show that behavioural deficits associate with an increase in the heritability of individual differences. We discuss the results in the context of contemporary theories of the influence of genetic variation on functional and structural brain development, and assess the merits of the domain-specific and domain-relevant accounts of uneven cognitive profiles in neurodevelopmental conditions and individual differences.Summary Heritable neurodevelopmental conditions such as dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, developmental language disorder, and developmental coordination disorder are characterised by uneven cognitive profiles. However, little is known about how genes produce such uneven cognitive profiles. It is a puzzle because genetic effects on brain development are typically more widespread than areas showing functional specialisation in adults. The work presents computational modelling to demonstrate how the relationship between cognitive domains and processing properties of a substrate constrains behavioural development. A common substrate for different domains (such as association cortex in a cortical lobe), where domains are specialised to different regions with shared properties, may exhibit uneven cognitive profiles if the processing properties of the substrate are better tuned to supporting some domains than others (so-called domain-relevance). Simulations then test the hypothesis that domain relevance is a plausible mechanism for explaining how common genetic variation might contribute to specific and uneven cognitive profiles seen in neurodevelopmental conditions. The computational simulations therefore give insight into how conditions such as dyslexia may emerge, why they would be heritable, and why the relationship between genotype and phenotype in common neurodevelopmental conditions is likely to be highly polygenic.

Evidence for educational or cognitive advantages in multilinguals is mixed and may reflect socioeconomic or cultural confounds. Using 1673 UK adolescents from the SCAMP cohort, we examined educational attainment at ages 11 and 16 and change in cognitive control between these time points, comparing simultaneous multilinguals, children learning English as a second language, and monolinguals while adjusting for relevant covariates. Simultaneous multilinguals showed a small but reliable attainment advantage over monolinguals at both ages, whereas cognitive differences appeared only in cross-sectional analyses. Children learning English as a second language showed lower attainment at 11, steeper gains, and higher attainment by 16, with no evidence of cognitive differences. Mediation analyses indicated that attainment advantages were largely independent of cognitive measures, suggesting that educational outcomes and cognitive differences should be decoupled. These findings inform policy discussions on multilingual education.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS:Down syndrome (DS) is associated with intellectual disability, with particular difficulties in expressive language and gross motor abilities, and relative strengths in receptive language. Here, we examine how this profile arises over the first five years of life. METHODS:A total of 104 children with DS (6-63 months) participated in a standardised developmental assessment (Mullen Scales of Early Learning; MSEL). Developmental trajectories were analysed cross-sectionally and validated with a longitudinal subsample. RESULTS:The trajectories gradually diverged from typical development, with an uneven pattern across domains. As children with DS get older, their gross motor difficulties persist, their expressive language becomes a relative weakness, and their receptive language becomes an area of emerging relative strength. Longitudinal data revealed limited stability of individual differences except for visual reception. CONCLUSION:Understanding how the DS profile emerges, as well as how stable individual differences are, presents important steps towards tailored support.

Despite earlier claims that language abilities are intact in individuals with Williams syndrome (WS), many studies have shown that language development is often delayed and atypical, that is, it develops in line with different cognitive abilities compared to typically developing populations. It is unclear, however, whether general cognitive development predicts language comprehension in WS. The current study is the first to examine the development of grammatical comprehension in a large group ( N = 58) of individuals with WS aged 5 to 21 years old. Grammatical comprehension is key to a person’s ability to understand what is being said and engage in successful social interaction. Using cross-sectional developmental trajectories, performance on the Test for the Reception of Grammar was shown to increase with chronological age and performance was predicted by vocabulary scores, but not non-verbal ability. In addition, there was no meaningful difference between items that contained spatial language and similar grammatical constructions that did not contain spatial language and performance on both types of expressions was similarly predicted by vocabulary scores. Overall, these results show that grammatical development in WS is delayed but not atypical in its relationship to vocabulary.

A mind, brain and education (MBE) approach applies the best evidence regarding how people learn to real classroom settings. Much of the work in the field to date has involved child learners, but MBE is increasingly turning to the study of adult education, supported by a growing understanding of how adults and children differ in their learning styles. MBE’s systematic, evidence-driven interdisciplinary approach has much to offer the field of adult literacy. The Literacy for Women in Africa (LWA) programme in Malawi seeks to improve and develop its provision for adult learners using MBE’s interdisciplinary, evidence-based approach. This article reports on that programme, showing how its design and future development have benefited from the MBE framework. The authors suggest that the field of adult literacy could gain from the development of a strong, shared, scientific evidence base which allows all programme practitioners to benefit from the best knowledge available. The authors offer their experience with the LWA programme as a small contribution towards that goal. It is their hope that this article will be of use to those involved in the development, design and implementation of adult literacy programmes, particularly in the Global South.

Research indicates that evidence-based approaches are most effective in improving educational outcomes for children and young people with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND). However, it is not clear how educators identify and integrate research evidence to guide their intervention approaches, and the extent to which school context (e.g., setting, phase of education, and senior leadership) may influence their decision-making. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 32 primary and secondary educational practitioners from mainstream and specialist provision schools in England. Participants were asked to reflect on the intervention strategies they use to support students with SEND, the factors influencing their selection of intervention approaches, and how they identify, evaluate, and apply evidence to inform their choices and assess effectiveness. School type and education phase impacted intervention choices, with primary and specialist schools favoring flexible approaches with short, frequent sessions. Secondary and mainstream schools, which were often more constrained by cost and resources, prioritized programs requiring minimal staff training. In terms of how practitioners engaged with research to inform their choices, findings revealed that practitioners had limited awareness of key indicators of research reliability, such as rigorous scientific methodologies like randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Instead, most participants relied on personal experience or word of mouth to inform their choices of interventions. Participants preferred designing their own interventions or using flexible, piecemeal approaches rather than manualized programs. These findings highlight current practices and suggest areas for improving SEND support. Practical implications are discussed.

No previous systematic reviews have focused on which targeted interventions successfully raise educational outcomes (i.e. reading, writing, mathematics, science and general attainment outcomes) for students with Down syndrome. This study reports on the findings from a larger pre-registered systematic review of targeted interventions for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). Here, we examined studies that have used a randomised controlled trial (RCT) or quasi-experimental design (QED) to evaluate a targeted intervention for students with Down syndrome to establish evidence of positive outcomes and to identify any research gaps. Six studies were identified. Four of these focused on interventions designed to improve reading abilities, and two focused on improving mathematical outcomes. Some positive outcomes were reported, despite the studies using small sample sizes and reporting on interventions that were implemented for less than one school term. This study highlights that individualised programmes delivered by an adult rather than by computer provide the most likely success for raising educational outcomes in students with Down syndrome. However, there are few RCT and QED studies that have evaluated what interventions can be beneficial for this population. The implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed.

Although previous studies have evaluated return-to-work status following low-grade glioma (LGG) treatment, there is a paucity of detailed data on the nature of the occupation a patient returns to. The aim of this study was to describe the socioeconomic status of patients with WHO grade II diffuse glioma over long-term follow up and whether it changed following the LGG diagnosis. In addition, cognitive, education, and quality of life profiles, as well as estimated premorbid intelligence, were evaluated to explore the possibility of relationships with socioeconomic status. Twenty-one individuals with a histological diagnosis of WHO grade II diffuse glioma were recruited prospectively from a single UK center and completed questionnaires evaluating general health, socioeconomics, education, quality of life, and a battery of validated cognitive tests. Socioeconomic status was evaluated through an occupational-based classification. Forty percent of participants in the most advantaged socioeconomic group prior to the diagnosis of a glioma did not remain in the same advantaged group at the point of recruitment into the study. This is despite no marked cognitive impairments across the cohort and no significant cognitive differences between those who did and did not remain in this advantaged group. Attainment of a university-level qualification was significantly associated with maintenance of socioeconomic advantage following the LGG diagnosis, which may be explained by the concept of cognitive reserve. In conclusion, there are profound deleterious socioeconomic effects of LGG and its treatment. Educational attainment may be protective. Early tailored and proactive professional support regarding work-related issues is required for this patient group.

Previous research demonstrates an association between spatial ability and science achievement in primary-school-aged children. However, little is known about the mechanisms driving this relationship. We investigated the associations between children's spatial skills and components of physics learning (factual knowledge vs. conceptual knowledge [predictions and explanations]). Participants (N = 103; mean age = 9.6 years) completed a set of spatial tasks based on the ''2 x 2" (intrinsic-extrinsic; static-dynamic) model of spatial cognition. They also participated in a whole-class science lesson about sound, followed by an assessment of science knowledge. After controlling for vocabulary and prior knowledge, spatial ability was not associated with factual knowledge scores. However, spatial skills were significantly associated with predictions and explanations; the association was stronger for explanations than for predictions and was driven by intrinsic-dynamic spatial skills. Findings demonstrate that spatial skills are more important for conceptual scientific knowledge than for factual scientific knowledge and further suggest that spatial intervention studies designed to enhance children's science learning should target intrinsic-dynamic spatial skills. (c) 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

This study examines the impact of multilingualism and socioeconomic status on academic performance within the UK, utilising a dataset of 3,213 pupils from the National Pupil Database who also took part in the Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones (SCAMP). We employed multilevel modelling to analyse the relationship between language experience, socioeconomic status and Key-Stage 2 (KS2, ~ 11 years) and Key-Stage 4 (KS4, ~ 16 years) performance in English, Mathematics and Science. Findings reveal that multilingual learners initially encounter academic challenges at KS2, particularly in English and Science, yet they achieve comparable results with their monolingual peers by KS4, overcoming early setbacks. Notably, simultaneous multilinguals not only catch up but excel beyond their monolingual counterparts by KS4, demonstrating the significant long-term academic benefits of early multilingual exposure.Further analysis indicates that multilingualism mitigates the adverse effects of low socioeconomic status, with pupils from these backgrounds making substantial academic strides between KS2 and KS4 compared to monolingual peers. This challenges prevalent misconceptions about multilingualism in education.These findings underscore the need for educational policies that harness linguistic diversity to foster academic equity and success, emphasising the crucial role of language experience and socioeconomic factors in shaping educational outcomes.

Background: There is increasing evidence that air pollution and noise may have detrimental psychological impacts, but there are few studies evaluating adolescents, ground-level ozone exposure, multi-exposure models, or metrics beyond outdoor residential exposure. This study aimed to address these gaps. Methods: Annual air pollution and traffic noise exposure at home and school were modelled for adolescents in the Greater London SCAMP cohort (N=7555). Indoor, outdoor and hybrid environments were modelled for air pollution. Cognitive and mental health measures were self-completed at two timepoints (baseline aged 11-12 and follow-up aged 13-15). Associations were modelled using multi-level multivariate linear or ordinal logistic regression. Results: This is the first study to investigate ground-level ozone exposure in relation to adolescent executive functioning, finding that a 1 interquartile range increase in outdoor ozone corresponded to -0.06 (p < 0.001) z-score between baseline and follow-up, 38 % less improvement than average (median development + 0.16). Exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 24-hour traffic noise, and particulate matter < 10 mu g/m(3) (PM10) were also significantly associated with slower executive functioning development when adjusting for ozone. In two-pollutant models, particulate matter and ozone were associated with increased externalising problems. Daytime and evening noise were associated with higher anxiety symptoms, and 24-hour noise with worse speech-in-noise perception (auditory processing). Adjusting for air pollutants, 24-hour noise was also associated with higher anxiety symptoms and slower fluid intelligence development. Conclusions: Ozone's potentially detrimental effects on adolescent cognition have been overlooked in the literature. Our findings also suggest harmful impacts of other air pollutants and noise on mental health. Further research should attempt to replicate these findings and use mechanistic enquiry to enhance causal inference. Policy makers should carefully consider how to manage the public health impacts of ozone, as efforts to reduce other air pollutants such as NO2 can increase ozone levels, as will the progression of climate change.

Longitudinal research can assess how diverging development of multiple cognitive skills during infancy, as well as familial background, are related to the emergence of neurodevelopmental conditions. Sensorimotor and effortful control difficulties are seen in infants later diagnosed with autism; this study explored the relationships between these skills and autism characteristics in 340 infants (240 with elevated familial autism likelihood) assessed at 4-7, 8-10, 12-15, 24, and 36 months. We tested: (1) the relationship between parent-reported effortful control (Rothbart's temperament questionnaires) and sensorimotor skills (Mullen Scales of Early Learning), using random intercept cross-lagged panel modelling; (2) whether household income and maternal education predicted stable individual differences in cognition; (3) sensorimotor and effortful control skills as individual and interactive predictors of parent-reported autism characteristics (Social Responsiveness Scale) at 3 years, using multiple regression; and (4) moderation of interactions by familial likelihood. Sensorimotor skills were longitudinally associated with effortful control at the subsequent measurement point from 12-15 months. Socioeconomic status indicators did not predict stable between-infant differences in sensorimotor or effortful control skills. Effortful control skills were longitudinally related to 3-year autism characteristics from the first year of life, with evidence for an interaction with sensorimotor skills at 24 months. Effects of effortful control increased with age and were particularly important for infants with family histories of autism. Results are discussed in relation to different theoretical frameworks: Developmental Cascades and Anterior Modifiers in the Emergence of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. We suggest a role for 24-month effortful control in explaining the emergent autism phenotype. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Sensorimotor skills longitudinally predicted effortful control from 12-15 months onward but effortful control did not longitudinally predict sensorimotor skills during infancy. Measures of effortful control skills taken before the age of 1 predicted continuous variation in autism characteristics at 36 months, with associations increasing in strength with age. Effortful control (measured at 12-15 and 24 months) was a stronger predictor of 36-month autism characteristics in infants with elevated familial likelihood for autism. The relationship between 24-month sensorimotor skills and 36-month autism characteristics was stronger in infants with weaker effortful control skills.

ABSTRACT This article describes the key premise behind the field of educational neuroscience. It explores how the interface of neuroscience and education may be navigated. Considering the brain as the basis of learning introduces a wider, more holistic conception tan that conveyed by a focus on memory and cognition, one that draws attention to the physical, emotional, and social context of learning. I outline some key principles of how the brain works and how these link to principles of teaching. However, educational neuroscience should not be viewed as an attempt to reduce education to the individual or to biology; the individual child is nested within the context of the school, family, society, and culture. Educational neuroscience is part of the science of learning and an evidence-informed approach to education. I argue the evidence-informed approach may require some rethinking of national structures and the relationship between government, schools, and universities. In this context, educational neuroscience is part of the ‘research and development’ wing of education, involved in generating new insights and innovation. An example is outlined from a Project using neuroscience principles to design a new classroom activity to support the learning of counterintuitive concepts in science and mathematics in primary age children. I conclude by proposing the level at which teachers should engage with neuroscience to best inform their practice. RESUMEN Introducción. Este artículo describe la premisa clave que subyace al campo de la neurociencia educativa. Explora cómo se puede navegar por la interfaz de la neurociencia y la educación. Objetivo. Considerar el cerebro como la base del aprendizaje introduce una concepción más amplia y holística que la que transmite un enfoque centrado en la memoria y la cognición, una concepción que llama la atención sobre el contexto físico, emocional y social del aprendizaje. Temas de reflexión. Se esbozan algunos principios clave sobre el funcionamiento del cerebro y su relación con los principios de la enseñanza. Sin embargo, la neurociencia de la educación no debe verse como un intento de reducir la educación al individuo o a la biología; el niño individual está anidado en el contexto de la escuela, la familia, la sociedad y la cultura. La neurociencia educativa forma parte de la ciencia del aprendizaje y de un enfoque de la educación basado en pruebas. Se discute que el enfoque basado en evidencia puede requerir un replanteamiento de las estructuras nacionales y de la relación entre el gobierno, las escuelas y las universidades. En este contexto, la neurociencia educativa forma parte del ala de «investigación y desarrollo» de la educación, que participa en la generación de nuevos conocimientos e innovaciones. A modo de ejemplo, se expone un proyecto en el que se utilizaron los principios de la neurociencia para diseñar una nueva actividad en el aula destinada a apoyar el aprendizaje de conceptos contraintuitivos de ciencias y matemáticas en niños de primaria. Conclusiones. Se concluye que se debe proponer un nivel, en el que los profesores deban comprometerse con la neurociencia para informar mejor su práctica. RESUMO Introdução. Este artigo descreve a premissa principal subjacente ao campo da neurociência educacional. Explora-se como navegar na interface da neurociência e da educação. Objetivo. Considerar o cérebro como a base da aprendizagem introduz uma compreensão mais ampla e holística do que aquela transmitida por uma abordagem focada na memória e na cognição, uma concepção que chama a atenção para o contexto físico, emocional e social da aprendizagem. Tópicos para reflexão. Alguns princípios fundamentais sobre a função cerebral e sua relação com os princípios de ensino são apresentados. No entanto, a neurociência da educação não deve ser vista como uma tentativa de reduzir a educação ao indivíduo ou à biologia; a criança, individualmente, está inserida no contexto da escola, da família, da sociedade e da cultura. A neurociência educacional faz parte da ciência da aprendizagem e de uma abordagem educacional baseada em evidências. Argumenta-se que uma abordagem baseada em evidências pode exigir uma reformulação das estruturas nacionais e da relação entre governo, escolas e universidades. Nesse contexto, a neurociência educacional faz parte da ala de “pesquisa e desenvolvimento” da educação, que está envolvida na geração de novos conhecimentos e inovações. Como exemplo, é apresentado um projeto no qual os princípios da neurociência foram usados para elaborar uma nova atividade em sala de aula, destinada a apoiar a aprendizagem de conceitos contraintuitivos em ciências e matemática em crianças do ensino fundamental. Conclusões. Conclui-se que deve ser proposto um nível em que os professores se envolvam com a neurociência para melhor fundamentar sua prática.

INTRODUCTION:Sex differences exist in the prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Part of the aetiology of NDDs has been proposed to be alterations in the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, leading to the question of whether males and females respond differently to altered neurotransmitter balance. We investigated whether pharmacological alteration of GABAA signalling in early development results in sex-dependent changes in adult behaviours associated with NDDs. METHODS:Male and female C57BL/6J mice received intraperitoneal injections of 0.5 mg/kg muscimol or saline on postnatal days (P) 3-5 and were subjected to behavioural testing, specifically open field, light/dark box, marble-burying, sucralose preference, social interaction, and olfactory habituation/dishabituation tests between P60 and P90. RESULTS:Early postnatal administration of muscimol resulted in reduced anxiety in the light/dark box test in both male and female adult mice. Muscimol reduced sucralose preference in males, but not females, whereas female mice showed reduced social behaviours. Regional alterations in cortical thickness were observed in the weeks following GABAA receptor activation, pointing to an evolving structural difference in the brain underlying adult behaviour. CONCLUSIONS:We conclude that activation of the GABAA receptor in the first week of life resulted in long-lasting changes in a range of behaviours in adulthood following altered neurodevelopment. Sex of the individual affected the nature and severity of these abnormalities, explaining part of the varied pathophysiology and neurodevelopmental diagnosis that derive from excitatory/inhibitory imbalance.

In this article, we give an overview of translational educational neuroscience (mind, brain, and education) in the United Kingdom. We consider the state of translation, describing respectively the state of the dialogue between researchers and educators, the state of evaluation of approaches to improve educational outcomes, and the state of innovation in research translation. We consider the teacher perspective. What do UK teachers think about educational neuroscience and its potential for informing classroom practice, and how do ideas about pedagogical approaches feature amongst their everyday concerns? We describe the results of a recent survey from a representative sample of over 1000 UK teachers, and a case study of a UK high school teacher who employs educational neuroscience in his practice and what this entails. Lastly, we consider the policy perspective and assess the recent move by the UK government to introduce knowledge of cognitive science into initial and early-career teacher training.

Despite an increased interest and investment in gold standard interventions in education, the gap between the latest research on how we learn and teaching practice remains, as well as persistent attainment gaps for certain groups. This report summarises the presentations and discussion from a roundtable event that discussed challenges and solutions in relation to establishing what works in different contexts, including (1) who is involved and when; (2) a need for methodological innovation; (3) communication issues; and (4) understanding and use of evidence by educators and policymakers. We highlight best practice in relation to addressing these issues using national and international examples. Recommendations related to a research culture within the teaching profession, data sharing and communication and realistic evaluations are discussed as well as outstanding questions.

BACKGROUND:People with Down syndrome (DS) show clinical signs of accelerated ageing. Causative mechanisms remain unknown and hypotheses range from the (essentially untreatable) amplified-chromosomal-instability explanation, to potential actions of individual supernumerary chromosome-21 genes. The latter explanation could open a route to therapeutic amelioration if the specific over-acting genes could be identified and their action toned-down. METHODS:Biological age was estimated through patterns of sugar molecules attached to plasma immunoglobulin-G (IgG-glycans, an established "biological-ageing-clock") in n = 246 individuals with DS from three European populations, clinically characterised for the presence of co-morbidities, and compared to n = 256 age-, sex- and demography-matched healthy controls. Isogenic human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSCs) models of full and partial trisomy-21 with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing and two kinase inhibitors were studied prior and after differentiation to cerebral organoids. FINDINGS:Biological age in adults with DS is (on average) 18.4-19.1 years older than in chronological-age-matched controls independent of co-morbidities, and this shift remains constant throughout lifespan. Changes are detectable from early childhood, and do not require a supernumerary chromosome, but are seen in segmental duplication of only 31 genes, along with increased DNA damage and decreased levels of LaminB1 in nucleated blood cells. We demonstrate that these cell-autonomous phenotypes can be gene-dose-modelled and pharmacologically corrected in hiPSCs and derived cerebral organoids. Using isogenic hiPSC models we show that chromosome-21 gene DYRK1A overdose is sufficient and necessary to cause excess unrepaired DNA damage. INTERPRETATION:Explanation of hitherto observed accelerated ageing in DS as a developmental progeroid syndrome driven by DYRK1A overdose provides a target for early pharmacological preventative intervention strategies. FUNDING:Main funding came from the "Research Cooperability" Program of the Croatian Science Foundation funded by the European Union from the European Social Fund under the Operational Programme Efficient Human Resources 2014-2020, Project PZS-2019-02-4277, and the Wellcome Trust Grants 098330/Z/12/Z and 217199/Z/19/Z (UK). All other funding is described in details in the "Acknowledgements".