In this introduction to the special issue ‘Resilience in Learning: In Search of Protective Factors and Compensatory Mechanisms’ we provide an overview of the seven articles featured in this special issue and address important themes in this relatively new area of research. These seven articles each have their own foci and form an introduction into the emerging field of academic resilience in the context of education. They cover a theoretical paper, scoping review, several original empirical studies, and an in-depth reflection on the emerging evidence for protective factors and compensatory mechanisms in the context of learning. As this special issue should only be considered as a starting point, we end with suggesting future directions to advance the field.

In the present study, longitudinal associations between parental depressive symptoms and child behavior (externalizing and internalizing problems and adaptive skills) were examined using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model. The participants were 200 Finnish children (106 boys, 94 girls) and their parents. Both fathers and mothers reported their depressive symptoms and rated child behavior of their children at the ages of 4, 6, and 9. In the combined models including effects from both parents, the results showed that at the between-person level, maternal depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with child behavior, while paternal depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with maternal depressive symptoms yet not with child behavior. Significant within-person-level predictive panels from child internalizing behavior at child ages of 4 and 6 to maternal depressive symptoms at child ages of 6 and 9, and from paternal depressive symptoms at child age of 6 to child externalizing behavior and adaptive skills at child age of 9 emerged in the model identifying the unique effects of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

The link between math skills and math anxiety is well-established, with parental homework support potentially acting as a contributing factor to both. This study used repeated measures latent profile analysis (N = 534) to identify children’s math and anxiety profiles across Grades 2–4 and examine their associations with parental support and homework-related emotions, while controlling for parental math skills and anxiety. We identified four profiles: average skills/low anxiety (47.2%), low skills/low anxiety (28.8%), high skills/low anxiety (15.3%), and low skills/high anxiety (8.7%). Frequent parental support and negative homework-related emotions predicted higher odds of membership in low-skill profiles. However, most associations were attenuated when accounting for parental math skills. These results underscore the complexity of intergenerational transmission. While prior literature argued that support from math-anxious parents exacerbates child math anxiety, our findings provide a more nuanced perspective. We demonstrate that accounting for parental math skills is critical, as the link between support and child anxiety may not represent a purely environmental pathway. Instead, it likely reflects a shared vulnerability, where skills and anxiety are transmitted through overlapping genetic and environmental factors.

Background Reading achievement is positively associated with reading engagement; however, reading anxiety may undermine this relationship by reinforcing avoidance behaviors and reducing engagement. This study investigated whether reading anxiety mediates the association between early reading fluency and later reading engagement, and whether child interest or parent importance value for reading moderate this relationship. Methods The reading skills of approximately 660 children were assessed in Grades 1 and 2. Reading engagement (i.e., reading frequency and avoidance) was measured in both grades, while reading anxiety, children’s interest in reading, and parental value placed on reading were assessed in Grade 2. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the mediating role of reading anxiety and the moderating effects of child and parental task values. Results Grade 1 reading fluency skills predicted Grade 2 fluency, indicating that early reading skills have a direct effect on later reading achievement. Additionally, they predicted Grade 2 reading anxiety, with higher early reading fluency predicting lower anxiety levels. Reading anxiety, in turn, was negatively associated with both Grade 2 reading fluency and reading frequency and it significantly mediated the relationship between Grade 1 fluency and Grade 2 reading frequency. Children’s interest in reading was positively associated with both fluency and frequency, while parental value was associated with frequency only. However, neither child nor parent reading values moderated the associations between anxiety and either fluency or frequency. Conclusions These findings highlight the importance of addressing early reading fluency difficulties and reading anxiety to foster sustained reading engagement and support long-term reading development.

To support literacy acquisition, abundant research has focused on cognitive predictors. However, reading processes involve also affective factors. The present study explored children’s reading related anxiety and its longitudinal associations with reading skills and reading interest value among a sample of 790 Finnish children followed from Grade 2 to 3. The assessments administered in the classrooms included children’s self-reported reading anxiety and reading interest, followed by reading fluency skill tests. The multiple linear regression models suggested that having lower reading fluency in Grade 2 predicted experiencing higher reading anxiety in Grade 3. Poorer reading was also associated with developing less reading interest, particularly among girls. The separate gender group analyses suggested that reading interest may support girls against developing anxiety in reading. The results suggest that the associations between reading skills, interest, and anxiety emerge early and that in the developmental ways to prevent reading anxiety, both skills and interest can be useful targets.

Today, children need critical reading skills from an early age, making it essential to explore how these skills can be supported in the home environment. Since no measure currently exists for examining home factors that may affect critical reading development, this study aimed to develop and validate scale for families with children aged 7–16 years. The study included three phases in Finland: 1) item generation, 2) item selection through two pilot studies (n=260; n=280), and 3) validation of the scale with two separate datasets from Finland (n=11,090; n=328). External validity was examined in a Polish sample (n=120). Initially, 178 items were generated, 82 of which were selected for piloting. Through the pilot studies, the 14 best-performing items were selected for validation. A six-factor structure was identified for the scale, referred to as the Home Factors for Critical Reading (home-CR) scale: 1) Critical reading practices, 2) Attention to child initiatives, 3) Control of media use, 4) Reading interest and expectations, 5) Valuing knowledge, and 6) Rigid thinking patterns. The consistency of the factor structure across samples and its alignment with theoretical constructs supported the construct validity of the scale. Criterion validity was examined in relation to the number of books at home, parental reading frequency, and digital parenting, and the home-CR scale was found to be related to—yet distinct from—these constructs. The confirmatory factor analysis loading structure and test–retest results supported the reliability of the scale. The iterative, validity-driven development process yielded a brief, multidimensional home-CR scale.

A growing number of empirical studies show a negative association between reading achievement and reading anxiety, but most evidence relies on cross-sectional correlational data. Importantly, there is a need for developmental studies that investigate how cognitive factors, reading development, and reading anxiety are intertwined. In this study, we aimed to close this gap by testing the extent to which intelligence quotient, working memory, initial reading skills, and reading development throughout elementary and middle school predict reading anxiety at the end of middle school on a sample of 499 children from Romania. The results indicated that initial reading skills tested in first grade, reading development in elementary school, and reading development in middle school each predicted reading anxiety in eighth grade. Neither intelligence quotient nor working memory was directly associated with reading anxiety but initial reading skills and reading development mediated the relationship between the cognitive factors and reading anxiety. The results highlight an important longitudinal relationship between reading development and reading anxiety and suggest an underlying mechanism that can be responsible for internalizing problems among adolescents.

The early school years are a crucial period for the development of foundational mathematics and reading skills, as well as academic anxieties. Understanding how achievement and anxiety are related during this period is essential for supporting children's academic success and well-being. This study examined the early development of mathematics and reading achievement and anxiety and their within- and across-domain associations from Grades 2 to 3. A Finnish sample of 800 children (409 girls) was assessed in Grade 2 (N = 668) and Grade 3 (N = 711) using standardized tests for reading and arithmetic fluency, while self-evaluation questionnaires measured reading and math anxiety. The longitudinal model revealed within-domain stability for reading and arithmetic fluency and for reading and math anxiety as well as within-domain predictive effects from skill to anxiety. Only one significant positive cross-domain path was found, that from reading fluency to arithmetic fluency. No gender differences were found in the longitudinal associations between skills and anxiety and controlling for parental education or child age did not change the results. The developmental dynamics between anxiety and skill thus appear to run from skills to anxiety and be domain-specific early on.

This study investigated the association between the quality of teacher-child interactions in toddler classrooms and children's numeracy, language, and literacy skills in toddlerhood and upon their entry into pre-primary education three years later. The numeracy, language, and literacy skills of 145 Finnish children (79 boys, 66 girls) were assessed in toddlerhood and again upon their entry into pre-primary education. The quality of teacher-child interactions in toddler classrooms (N = 43 classrooms) was evaluated using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) Toddler instrument, focusing on two domains-emotional and behavioral support, and engaged support for learning. Parents (N = 126) reported their education level and the frequency of informal home numeracy and literacy activities. The data were analyzed using longitudinal path models, controlling for the children's age, gender, parental education, frequency of informal home numeracy and literacy activities, and toddler skills in the same domain for longitudinal associations. The results indicate that engaged support for learning in toddler classrooms is positively associated with numeracy skills in toddlerhood but not upon entry into pre-primary education, while it is positively associated with language and literacy skills both in toddlerhood and upon their entry into pre-primary education. Therefore, policies concerning early childhood education for under-three-year-olds should prioritize supporting teachers' ability to deliver high-quality teacher-child interactions in toddler classrooms, given their relevance in developing children's foundational skills in toddlerhood and upon their entry into pre-primary education.

Human infants are assumed to be born with an innate understanding of quantities—a number sense— that enables them to detect non-symbolic number differences, for example, between sets of objects. This early ability has been found to be a predictor of later math skills. The assumption of innateness is based largely on studies in infants at 6 months of age or older and using visual stimuli with large numerosities, or in studies lacking statistical power. Using EEG, we studied pre-attentive discrimination for auditorily presented non-verbal numerical and non-numerical magnitudes of sleeping newborns (N = 104) to investigate whether the newborn auditory system is discriminating the number of sequentially presented sounds. The results showed that the 2-part repeated standard sound was discriminated from 3-part deviating sound and from 1-part deviating sound. As also the responses to 3-part sound differed from the responses of the same stimulus presented alone as a control, these results suggest that the difference between 2-part repeated sound and 3-part deviant sound is not merely due to physical features of the stimuli but reflects processing of numerosity. These results suggest that newborn infants are able to pre-attentively process at least some differences in the number of stimuli supporting the view of innateness of numerical magnitude discrimination. As the earlier evidence for innateness in newborns is limited, our study utilising small numerosities and auditory modality instead of vision—given the confounds in visual paradigms—offers complementary results on the innate brain processing on numerical information.

Associations between parental factors, home literacy environment (HLE) factors, and Grade 2 level students’ (mean age = 6.7 years) English language and literacy skills were examined in the Indian context. Students (N = 60) were individually tested on vocabulary, letter knowledge, phonological awareness, and reading skills in English. Their parents were asked to provide data on paternal and maternal formal education and English literacy level as well as on HLE factors including book access at home, shared reading in English, shared reading in first language, reading instruction at home, and private tutoring. Path models indicated associations between the parental factors, HLE factors, and children’s skills. In particular, more reading instruction at home and private tutoring were associated with better phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and oral vocabulary skills in children. Further, in the final model, mother’s higher education was predictive of child’s oral language and early literacy skills. Father’s literacy in English was associated only with child’s oral language. Additionally, significant indirect paths emerged from mother’s education level to reading skills and oral vocabulary via shared reading and reading instruction in English. This study extends prior findings on the links between HLE and children’s language and literacy skills into multi-lingual and low-income contexts.

ABSTRACT This randomized control trial examined the contribution of teacher‐led phonics instruction and GraphoLearn‐Rime (GL‐Rime) to the development of English literacy and reading skills of Grade 1 level children in a low‐income context. Students ( N = 234) were randomly allocated into three groups. The Phonics only group ( n = 83) received phonics instruction from trained teachers. The Phonics+GL group ( n = 89) received GL‐Rime (computer‐assisted reading instruction) along with teacher‐led phonics instruction. Both groups received respective interventions for 5 months. The control group ( n = 62) received business‐as‐usual instruction. Phonics‐only and Phonics+GL groups improved more than the control group on all measures of phonological awareness and reading skills. Intervention group students at the bottom 25th percentile at baseline scored better than the control group in oral‐ and paper‐based measures of phonological awareness, Grade 1 word reading, and in‐game letter‐sound knowledge measure. Furthermore, the Phonics+GL group performed better than the Phonics‐only group on paper‐based measure of letter‐sound knowledge. Amount of attendance to teacher‐led phonics instruction predicted intervention groups' paper‐based letter‐sound knowledge gains. In the Phonics+GL group, in‐game progress predicted gains in phonological awareness and word reading skills outside the game, but in‐game duration did not. In‐game progress mediated the effects of students' amount of attendance to teacher‐led phonics instruction and their pre‐test emergent literacy and word reading skills on post‐intervention learning outcomes. English‐as‐a‐second‐language learners and struggling readers who participated in teacher‐led phonics instruction more, developed better foundational literacy skills and progressed faster in GL‐Rime. Integrating a computer‐assisted reading instruction technology into classroom instruction supported learning transfer from digital to real‐world medium.

We examined how the home math environment (HME) relates to children’s arithmetic fluency development. Unlike most prior research, we used the Familial Control Method to account for familial confounding by leveraging parental skills. Children’s arithmetic fluency was tested in Grades 1, 2 and 3 (n = 498). Mothers’ (n = 406) and fathers’ (n = 176) mathematical skills were assessed using math tests and self-reports. Parents reported formal and informal HME activities. We used latent growth curve models. More informal math-related activities (e.g. playing games) at home predicted higher arithmetic fluency in Grade 3 and faster development from Grades 1 to 3 (β’s .26 to .37). In contrast, more formal math-related activities (e.g. explicit parental teaching) predicted lower arithmetic fluency in Grade 3 and slower development from Grades 1 to 3 (β’s -.56 to -.43). These associations attenuated, but most remained significant after controlling for parental skills (|β|’s .15-.44). Informal play-based interactions were positively linked to arithmetic development, whereas formal instruction and homework help were negatively linked. However, this negative association may reflect parents increasing their formal support in response to children’s difficulties—suggesting a possible evocative effect. Parents with lower math skills tended to have children with lower arithmetic fluency (r = .31-.34), and to engage more in formal and less in informal home math activities. This study underscores the intergenerational transmission of children’s arithmetic skills. Future research should continue to account for familial confounding to better understand how the home environment shapes children’s learning.

Background: Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk of learning difficulties, which may reflect shared risk factors, ADHD symptoms hindering learning, or learning difficulties increasing ADHD symptoms. We aimed to map rates of co-occurrence among ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties and to investigate directional influences between ADHD symptoms and reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension. Methods: Reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension were assessed longitudinally in approximately 2,000 Finnish children across Grades 1 to 9 (ages 7–16). Attention/hyperactivity symptoms were measured with teacher ratings (Grades 1–4) and self-reports (Grades 6–9). ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties were based on a 10th percentile cut-off. Directionality between ADHD symptoms and academic skills was examined using random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) to separate stable traits from time-specific states. Results: Children with ADHD were 1.14 to 1.75 times more likely to have a learning difficulty, whereas those with one learning difficulty were 4.32 to 4.62 times more likely to have another. The RI-CLPMs showed consistent autoregressive effects across all domains, indicating stable within-person variation over time. At the between-person level (i.e., trait), academic skills were negatively related to ADHD symptoms, especially those reported by teachers. At the within-person level (i.e., state), ADHD symptoms were unrelated to reading fluency and arithmetic. However, at multiple time points, cross-lagged effects emerged from ADHD symptoms to subsequent reading comprehension, indicating that elevated ADHD symptoms predicted subsequent declines in reading comprehension. Conclusions: Learning difficulties co-occurred more frequently with each other (homotypic) than with ADHD (heterotypic co-occurrence). Both ADHD symptoms and learning difficulties showed trait-like stability. After accounting for these, ADHD symptoms were no longer linked to reading fluency or arithmetic. However, more ADHD symptoms predicted later declines in reading comprehension, likely because comprehension requires sustained attention—often impaired in children with hyperactivity and inattention.

Given the current flux of information of varying quality and trustworthiness, critical reading skills (e.g., evaluating, comparing, and integrating information and related sources) are needed from an early age. While there is evidence that many parents support their children’s basic reading skills by teaching decoding or by reading books with their children, it is less clear how critical reading skills are supported at home during later school years. To address this gap, this study examined the prevalence, variability, and factor structure of a parental questionnaire on the home factors for critical reading using data from Finland. In addition, we investigated the roles of the child’s and parent’s genders, parents’ education levels, and the amount of reading materials at home in explaining the home factors for critical reading. To this end, parents of fourth graders (nG4 = 149), sixth graders (nG6 = 213), and eighth graders (nG8 = 226) responded to a questionnaire. The results suggested that, although on average, parents provided support for their children’s critical reading at each grade level, there was also variability across families. Differences between samples were limited to items related to media use; however, the factor structures differed across samples. The amount of reading materials at home was positively associated with the home factors for critical reading at each grade level. Together, these results indicate that the home factors for critical reading are present in Grades 4–8 but shifts structurally with age; moreover, access to print consistently relates to supportive practices.

Purpose This randomised control trial examined the contribution of teacher-led phonics instruction and GraphoLearn-Rime (GL-Rime) to the development of English literacy and reading skills of Grade 1 level children in a low-income context. Method Students (N = 234) were randomly allocated into three groups. The Phonics only group (n = 83) received phonics instruction from trained teachers. The Phonics+GL group (n = 89) received GL-Rime (computer-assisted reading instruction) along with teacher-led phonics instruction. Both groups received respective interventions for five months. Control group (n = 62) received business-as-usual instruction. Results Phonics only and Phonics+GL groups improved more than the control group on all measures of phonological awareness and reading skills. Intervention group students at the bottom 25th percentile at baseline scored better than the control group in oral- and paper-based measures of phonological awareness, Grade 1 word reading, and in-game letter sound knowledge measure. Further, the Phonics+GL group performed better than the Phonics only group on paper-based measure of letter sound knowledge. Amount of attendance to teacher-led phonics instruction predicted intervention groups’ paper-based letter sound knowledge gains. In the Phonics+GL group, in-game progress predicted gains in phonological awareness and word reading skills outside the game, but in-game duration did not. In-game progress mediated the effects of students’ amount of attendance to teacher-led phonics instruction and their pre-test emergent literacy and word reading skills on post-intervention learning outcomes. Conclusion English-as-a-second-language learners and struggling readers who participated in teacher-led phonics instruction more, developed better foundational literacy skills and progressed faster in GL-Rime. Integrating a computer-assisted reading instruction technology into classroom instruction supported learning transfer from digital to real world medium.

Research on mathematical development in early childhood, particularly during the toddler years (typically 18–36 months), remains limited. This study explores the associations between the home math environment (HME), parent-reported toddlers’ interest in math-related activities, and their early math skills. The sample included 420 Finnish toddlers whose early math skills were assessed at an average age of 2 years and 9 months. Both parents (N mothers = 318, N fathers = 221) responded to questionnaires covering aspects of the HME (formal and informal activities) and children’s interest in math activities involving numbers and operations. Parents’ education level, child age, and gender were controlled in the structural equation model, which regressed early math skills on HME, child interest, and controls, as well as child interest on HME and controls. The model explained 43% of the variance in early math skills and 49% and 53% of the variance in the interest variables: Fathers’ responses regarding less formal and more informal HME showed a direct association with children’s early math skills. Furthermore, a greater interest in activities involving numbers, older age, and being a girl were associated with better early math skills. More formal activities were positively associated with children’s interest in number activities, and the indirect effect of formal HME on children’s early math skills was significant and positive. These results suggest strong links between the HME, children’s interest in math activities, and their math skills at toddler age.

The early school years are a critical period for acquiring essential competencies in mathematics and reading, with learning and anxiety being closely interconnected. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for educators supporting children’s academic development and mental health. The present study examined the development of children's mathematics and reading skills alongside their corresponding anxieties, focusing on how and if these domains influence each other over two time points in grades 2 and 3. A Finnish sample of 800 children (409 girls) was assessed in Grade 2 (N = 668) and Grade 3 (N = 711) using standardized tests for reading and arithmetic fluency, while self-evaluation questionnaires measured reading and math anxiety. The single-domain models for math and reading revealed a bidirectional relationship between math anxiety and arithmetic fluency and a unidirectional relationship between reading fluency and reading anxiety. The cross-domain models revealed only one significant positive cross-domain path from reading fluency to arithmetic fluency. The lack of other significant longitudinal cross-domain associations suggests early domain-specificity. Concurrently, higher math and reading anxiety were associated with lower fluency across domains, but this may be due to being assessed in the same situation. No gender differences were found in the longitudinal associations between skills and anxiety. Overall, the findings highlight that the associations between skills and anxieties become interconnected as early as Grades 2–3, both concurrently and longitudinally, suggesting the emergence of potential reciprocal cycles that may contribute to slower learning and heightened achievement-related anxieties.

Background: Mathematical difficulties among parents seem to be a major risk factor for a child's mathematical development. At the same time, the home math environment (HME) has been reported to be associated with children's mathematical skills. Aims: To examine the role of formal (teaching) and informal (games and everyday activities) HME in the intergenerational transmission of arithmetic skills. Sample: The sample included Finnish children who were followed at ages 2, 5, Grade 1 spring (age 7-8) and Grade 2 spring (age 8-9). The sample (N = 402) comprised children who had skill assessment data from Grade 1 (N = 366) or 2 (N = 321), whose parents' skills were assessed (N = 114 fathers and 153 mothers), and who had HME data available (340 families in Grade 1, 105 families at age 5, and 140 families at age 2). Methods: The children's arithmetic fluency and parental mathematical skills were tested using several tasks. HME was assessed via parental questionnaires. The data were analysed using latent interaction models. Results: Both mothers' and fathers' skills significantly predicted children's arithmetic skills. Formal and informal HME were found to moderate the effect of parental skills on children's skills. The formal HME factors suggested potential protective effects, whereas the informal HME factors indicated mixed results. Conclusions: Lower parental mathematical skills were a significant risk factor for children's arithmetic skills. Teaching activities at home seem to have the potential to alleviate familial risk.

The aim of the present study was to examine the extent to which symptoms of school burnout (exhaustion and cynicism) during the comprehensive school years played a role in individuals' long-term mental health problems. The data were collected in four municipalities (i.e., one big, one rural, and two medium-sized) around Finland. The sample included 673 students (376 girls, 297 boys) whose symptoms of school burnout were assessed three times: in Grade 6 (ages 12-13), Grade 7, and Grade 9. Indicators of later mental health problems were the use of antidepressants at the ages of 16-20 years old and self-reported depressive symptoms during the first year of upper secondary education at ages of 16-17 years. Information on symptoms of school burnout and depressive symptoms was derived from self-reports, and information on the use of antidepressants was obtained from the National Drug Prescription Register data. The data were analyzed using logistic regression and hierarchical linear regression models. The results showed that symptoms of exhaustion in Grade 9 significantly predicted the use of antidepressants in late adolescence; the higher the level of exhaustion in Grade 9, the greater the likelihood of using antidepressants during the follow-up period. Similar findings were found for self-reported depressive symptoms, as higher levels of exhaustion in Grades 7 and 9 predicted significantly higher levels of subsequent self-reported depressive symptoms. Higher levels of cynicism in Grade 9 predicted significantly higher levels of subsequent self-reported depressive symptoms, but not the use of antidepressants. The findings indicated that school burnout symptoms are significant predictors of ongoing mental health problems, emphasizing the need for early preventive work and interventions. Symptoms of exhaustion and cynicism increase the risk of depressive symptoms, and exhaustion may also progress to clinical depression requiring medication.