Low-energy (L-E) X-ray and gamma (γ) irradiation were used to determine the decimal reduction dose (D10), the relative radiosensitivity (RS) of Escherichiacoli O157:H7 and Aspergillusniger when in presence of essential oils (EOs) as radiosensitizers. The study was done in vitro using culture media and in situ on strawberries. L-E X-ray was tested at 350 kV or 55 kV and at 1.5 or 0.75 kGy/h, and γ-irradiation was performed at 1.50 kGy/h. In vitro results showed that, without EOs, the lowest D10 values for both microorganisms were obtained with 350 kV X-ray and γ-irradiation. In presence of EOs, the strongest radiosensitization was observed at 55 kV and 1.50 kGy/h for A. niger (RS = 1.854), while for E. coli it was achieved with 350 kV X-ray at 1.50 kGy/h (RS = 1.903). In situ on strawberries, the lowest D10 values without EOs were obtained for E. coli with 350 kV X-ray at 1.50 kGy/h and γ-irradiation at 1.50 kGy/h, with values of 0.160 and 0.166 kGy, respectively. For A. niger, the same modalities were the most efficient, with D10 values of 0.526 and 0.587 kGy, respectively. In presence of EOs, the lowest D10 values were observed at 350 kV L-E X-ray and 1.50 kGy/h for both E. coli and A. niger, reaching 0.114 and 0.496 kGy, respectively. However, the highest relative in situ radiosensitization was observed at 55 kV L-E X-ray and 1.50 kGy/h, with RS values of 1.455 for E. coli and 2.280 for A. niger.

Strawberry is a nutritive fruit with a short life and postharvest losses. In this study, the quality and shelf life of strawberries during storage at 4 °C were evaluated after applying hurdle treatment of packaging with active polylactic acid (PLA)/Gelatine (G)-based films loaded with essential oils (EOs) and/or AgNPs and combined with low-energy (L-E) X-ray at a dose of 0.5 kGy. The results showed that the addition of EOs, AgNPs, or their combination decreased the tensile strength (TS) of films from 16.70 to 6.65–10.01 MPa and increased elongation at break (Eb) from 215.4 to 218.2–398.2%. The oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of films increased from 219.7 to 274.8–298.6 cm3/m2·day, which promoted the development of gas selective films for equilibrium-modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP). A level of 20% decay (primary shelf life criterion) of strawberries was observed on day 8 for the commercial control (polyethylene terephtalate clamshell), on day 9 for the PLA/G-AgNPs films, and on day 10 for the PLA/G-EOs films and PLA/G-EOs + AgNPs films. The combined application of the active films with L-E X-ray irradiation (PLA/G/EOs + AgNPs + I) extended the time to reach 20% decay to day 13 compared to day 9 for irradiated commercial control. An EMAP was achieved after 6–9 days of storage, with a gas composition around 13–14% O2 and 8–9% CO2. The combined treatment of EOs, AgNPs containing films, and L-E X-ray irradiation prevented firmness and total soluble solid loss of strawberries. The redness of strawberries and their total phenolic/anthocyanin content increased after irradiation treatment and maintained significantly higher levels (p ≤ 0.05) than those of non-irradiated samples during storage. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of combining active PLA/G films and L-E X-ray irradiation in extending the shelf life and preserving the quality of fresh strawberries.

This study investigated the antimicrobial effects of different treatments on seasoned ground beef during chilled storage. The treatments included low-energy X-ray and high-energy gamma-ray (gamma-ray) irradiation at 1.5 kGy, encapsulated nanoemulsion (NE), and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP; 80 % O2 + 20 % CO2), applied individually and in combination. Both irradiation methods exhibited potent antimicrobial activity, significantly reducing total viable counts, lactic acid bacteria, and Brochothrix thermosphacta, while Pseudomonas spp. was not detected in any irradiated samples throughout the shelf-life, indicating high irradiation sensitivity. The combined treatments extended the shelf-life of ground beef up to 27-30 days compared to the control (9-12 days), demonstrating a synergistic effect. Additionally, the combined treatments preserved the color quality and oxymyoglobin content, while reducing lipid oxidation and minimizing the oxidative impacts typically associated with irradiation. Interestingly, X-ray irradiation, despite its lower penetration ability compared to gamma-rays, proved to be equally effective in extending the shelf-life of ground beef. Physicochemical analysis showed that X-ray irradiation maintained better color preservation and reduced fat oxidation. Thus, this study highlights the potential of combining X-ray irradiation with encapsulated NE and MAP as an innovative and effective approach for enhancing microbiological safety without compromising ground beef quality, offering a sustainable solution for shelf-life extension.

Bioactive nanocomposite diffusion films containing plant essential oils (EOs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were fabricated and tested against foodborne pathogens, spoilage organisms, and insects in packaged foods. Films were based on chitosan (CH), poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), and polylactic acid (PLA), containing cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), plasticizers such as glycerol (Gly) or polyethylene glycol (PEG), and three active mixtures of EOs/AgNPs (AC-1, AC-2, or AC-3). Films were characterized by their mechanical properties, water solubility (WS), water vapor permeability (WVP), in vitro antibacterial/antifungal and insecticidal properties, and release kinetics in food simulants. PBAT and PLA films displayed higher barrier properties, and no solubility compared to CH films. Bioactive CH and PBAT films showed stronger antibacterial/antifungal, and insecticidal properties against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Mucor circinelloides, and rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae, compared to bioactive PLA film. Challenge tests were conducted on rice and yogurt inoculated with selected bacteria and fungi by applying the diffusion films. Rice was treated with bioactive CH and PBAT films, in combination with gamma (γ)-irradiation (0.75 kGy) and stored for 8 weeks. Yogurt was treated with PBAT and PLA films for 8 weeks. Results showed that bioactive films significantly reduced the growth of bacteria/fungi in both food samples. The growth of insects inoculated in rice treated with bioactive films in combination with irradiation (0.1-0.3 kGy) was controlled from the first week of storage. A combined treatment of irradiation at 3 kGy with bioactive films increased significantly the insect mortality up to 96%-100%, from Day 7 to 14 compared to treatment with bioactive films alone. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Nanocomposite bioactive diffusion films developed in this study could be applied as diffusion devices of active natural compounds not only for the control of bacteria/fungi and pest insects in packaged rice (with a possible combined treatment with γ-irradiation), but also for that of bacteria/fungi in yogurt. The active formulations could be used in the food industry for controlling insect proliferation in the sector of stored cereals but also to prevent bacterial and fungal contamination in cereals and dairy products such as yogurts and their derived products.

The fumigant toxicity of 6 essential oils (EOs) (Mediterranean, Southern, citrus, cinnamon, Asian, and savory thyme), 2 citrus extracts (CEs: organic OCE and natural NCE), and 2 active formulations (microfluidized nanoemulsions AF-1 and AF-2) was investigated for control of rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), a stored product pest. In bioassays, AF-1 and AF-2 at 0.6 µL/mL exhibited higher insecticidal efficacy compared to single EOs and CEs after 72 h of exposure. AF-2 showed higher acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibition in rice weevils than AF-1. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions (NEs) of AF-1 and AF-2 were prepared by microfluidization, resulting in a decrease in droplet size (DS) from 232 to 116 nm and 230 to 40 nm, and an increase in encapsulation efficiency (EE) from 30% to 77% and from 11% to 79% respectively. To exploit the insecticidal attributes of these NEs, 6 nanocomposite bioactive diffusion films (BDFs) were prepared based on chitosan (CH), poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), or polylactic acid (PLA), all reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), and containing either AF-1 or AF-2. Films were evaluated as diffusion devices in bags of rice infested with weevils. CH films induced the highest insect mortality (78%-83%) after 14 days, compared to 6% in controls. Gamma irradiation at 200 Gy alone caused 62% mortality, which increased to 82%100% after combination with the BDFs after 14 days. The presence of CNC in BDFs reduced the % release of bioactive NEs by 12%-27% compared to the films without CNC. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Nanocomposite BDFs developed in this study could be applied as diffusion devices of insecticidal natural compounds for the control of rice weevils in packaged rice. The active formulations (AF-1 and AF-2 based on nanoemulsions of CEs and EOs), combined with low-dose irradiation treatments, could be used in the food industry for controlling insect proliferation in the sector of stored cereals.

This study developed biodegradable carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) films crosslinked with citric acid (CA) and X-ray irradiation as sustainable packaging alternatives to reduce plastic use. CMC/CA films were subjected to three doses of X-ray irradiation at two energy levels. CMC/CA films exposed to 10 kGy at 350 kV exhibited a significant three-fold reduction in water solubility compared to non-irradiated films, while also lowering water vapor and oxygen permeability without affecting mechanical strength (p ≤ 0.05). FTIR analysis confirmed the esterification between CMC and CA, which reduced the film hydrophilicity. Onion peel extract (OPE) was added as a bioactive compound to provide antifungal properties. Release studies showed reduced OPE diffusion in irradiated films, with lower release rate constant (kkp) values. The in situ test on cheese inoculated with Penicillium commune showed that the irradiated bioactive films prolonged shelf life, reducing fungal counts to log 2.3 CFU/g after 18 days compared to log 5.7 CFU/g in control samples. Cheese wrapped with irradiated bioactive films had weight loss from 1.05 to 9.37%, whereas uncovered samples exhibited the highest weight loss (2.07 to 15.07%). Overall, irradiation-assisted crosslinking and OPE incorporation improved film functionality, offering a sustainable and effective packaging solution for cheese preservation within a circular economy framework.

This study aimed to develop a novel bioactive biobased packaging film combining gelatin (G) and ethyl cellulose (EC), cardanol and glycerol as plasticizers, trans-cinnamaldehyde (TCA) as a crosslinker/bioactive compound, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as bioactive agents. The degree of crosslinking, mechanical and thermal properties, water solubility (WS), and water vapor permeability (WVP) of the films were analyzed. Molecular interactions within the film matrix were determined by FTIR spectroscopy. The G-EC film, in a 1:2 weight ratio, exhibited improved physicochemical properties compared to the pure G film, with a low WS (7.8%). The incorporation of TCA and AgNPs-to form bioactive nanocomposite films-improved the barrier and mechanical properties of the film (WS 0.33%, WVP 2.39 g·mm·m- 2·day- 1·kPa- 1, tensile strength 9.6 MPa) with a 57% degree of crosslinking. Thermal analyses (TGA/DSC) revealed improved thermal stability of these films, with an increase in the maximum decomposition temperature (Tmax up to 370°C-380°C) and the glass transition temperature (Tg 29.5°C) after incorporation of TCA and AgNPs. FTIR analysis confirmed the amide/imine covalent crosslinking reaction between TCA and G, and polymer network stabilization by hydrogen bonding between G and EC. The nanocomposite films demonstrated effective in vitro antibacterial activity against pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, with an inhibition spectrum of 27%-54%. An in situ test performed on chilled sliced meat packaged in nanocomposite films showed a significant extension of its shelf-life, up to 9 days. These results highlight the potential of G-EC-TCA-AgNPs films as a sustainable packaging solution for improved meat preservation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: G-EC-TCA-AgNPs films developed in this study could be applied as bioactive and biobased food packaging films to extend the shelf-life of meat products. Films are made of biopolymers and address the challenges of sustainability and circular economy. TCA and AgNPs could be used as a synergic antimicrobial combination encapsulated in films to prevent the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in meat.

Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and polylactic acid (PLA)-based nanocomposite films were developed as active packaging materials for stored rice. The composition and synergistic effect of the active formulations (AF-1 and AF-2), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), and glycerol (Gly) as independent variables were tested to reach the optimal antimicrobial nanocomposite films using response surface methodology (RSM) employing a central composite design (CCD). The inhibitory capacity (IC, %) of the developed films as a dependent variable against two bacterial and three fungal strains was measured using the agar volatilization assay. The ANOVA results showed a perfect fit of the regression models for the response, with significant P values (P ≤ 0.05) and high coefficient of determination (R2) values. Incorporating the CNC, Gly, and AFs significantly improved the PBAT films' elasticity, water barrier properties, and oxygen transmission rate (OTR) compared to the control films; however, the water and oxygen barrier properties of PLA films were compromised. The release data of AFs from the films was fitted with the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, indicating a Fickian or quasi-Fickian diffusion mechanism (n < 0.45). For the in situ study, the optimized bioactive PBAT-based films with 750 Gy of γ-irradiation synergistically reduced the bacterial and fungal load by 73-93% in stored rice after 2 months compared to the control treatments. The data confirms the potential applicability of the optimized films as promising candidates for active packaging for cereal grains and their ability to compete with traditionally used inert non-biodegradable plastic films.

Human milk in milk banks is prone to contamination by foodborne pathogens at many stages, from collection to packaging and storage. The objective of the study was to evaluate the bactericidal effect of an antibacterial formulation (AF; 0.025 % v/v) combined with X-ray irradiation up to 2 kGy (acceleration voltage of 55 kV; low voltage (LX) or 350 kV; high voltage (HX)) on vegetative cells of B. cereus, S. aureus and C. sakazakii in frozen milk. The D10 values in HX-ray treatment were 0.367, 0.410, and 0.205 kGy for B. cereus, S. aureus and C. sakazakii, respectively, and 0.384, 0.445, and 0.232 for LX-ray treatment. The addition of AF in human milk increased radiosensitivity (RS) of pathogens, with a higher RS value recorded in LX-ray treatment against B. cereus, and S. aureus (1.47 and 1.37) compared to 1.43 and 1.26 in HX-ray irradiated samples. The effect of the combined treatment on physicochemical attributes of milk samples was evaluated. The combined treatments didn't affect significantly lactose content, lipid oxidation, viscosity and color parameters, with better stability of these parameters in LX-ray treated samples compared to HX-ray treated samples at higher doses (1 and 2 kGy). The results obtained showed potential applicability of low energy X-ray in combination with AF as innovative antimicrobial non-thermal intervention that may be used human milk decontamination.

Holocellulose nanofibrils (HCNF), a type of nanocellulose with abundant amorphous regions suitable for chemical modification, show promise for sustainable food packaging but remain underutilized. This study employed HCNF to immobilize nisin and then spray-coated on the surface of soy protein isolate (SPI) films to improve mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties. HCNF was extracted from wood sheet through chemical delignification and low-energy defibrillation, and then oxidized to introduce aldehyde groups for efficient nisin conjugation. The abundant amorphous regions led to a high immobilization rate of 3.4 mg/g, and conjugated HCNF and nisin coatings on SPI films significantly enhanced tensile strength to 3.43 +/- 0.09 MPa, reduced water vapor permeability to 2.48 +/- 0.07 x 10-6 g m-1 h- 1 Pa- 1, and decreased oxygen permeability to 4.29 +/- 0.46 x 10-4 cm3 m-1 day- 1 atm- 1. The conjugate sustained inhibition of S. aureus and L. monocytogenes, and the coating of 9 wt% conjugate on SPI films resulted in a 6-log reduction in bacterial count for both bacteria, while free nisin lost its antimicrobial efficacy during 24 h of pre-incubation. This work suggests feasibility of using HCNF as an effective substrate for nisin immobilization, providing a sustainable functional packaging solution with extended antimicrobial activity.

Polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, offers significant potential in sustainable polymer applications but suffers from limited mechanical flexibility and barrier performance. In this study, PLA-based nanocomposite films were developed by incorporating zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and plasticizers (glycerol or cardanol) to address these limitations. ZnO NPs (200–280 nm) were synthesized via chemical precipitation and characterized using UV–vis spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic light scattering, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Field Emission- Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM). Nanocomposite films containing 1–5 wt

This study aimed to evaluate natural antifungal agents for controlling food spoilage caused by Botrytis cinerea, Rhizopus stolonifer, and Alternaria brassicae. Various plant-derived essential oils (EOs), including Mediterranean, Pan Tropical, Greek, Canada pine, Nepal pine, clove bud, cumin, Moroccan, and others, as well as 2 citrus extracts, and spherical silver nanoparticles (AgNPs: AGPPH and AGC 0.5) were tested for their antifungal properties. A broth microdilution assay was employed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of individual EOs and AgNPs. The potential interactions between EOs and AgNPs were evaluated using the checkerboard method by calculating fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) indices. The chemical compositions of selected EOs (Mediterranean, Greece, Pan Tropical, and Morocco) were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), revealing that over 97 % of their content comprised 15 major components, including trans-cinnamaldehyde, trans-p-methoxy cinnamaldehyde, trans-o-methoxy cinnamaldehyde, cis-cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, coumarin, thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, linalool, β-caryophyllene, α-pinene, myrcene and α-terpinene. Based on MIC and FIC results, three active formulations (AFs) were developed: AF1 (Mediterranean EO/Greece EO/Pan Tropical EO/AGC 0.5, 0.3:0.3:2.5:0.05), AF2 (Morocco EO/Greece EO/Pan Tropical EO/AGPPH, 0.3:0.3:2.5:0.05), and AF3 (Morocco EO/Mediterranean EO/Pan Tropical EO/AGC 0.5, 0.3:0.3:2.5:0.05). Their antifungal efficacy was assessed through MIC and agar diffusion assays. The formulations demonstrated strong antifungal activity, inhibiting R. stolonifer (80.7-89.0 %), B. cinerea (96.3-100 %), and A. brassicae (94.3-100 %). These findings suggest that these EO/AgNP-based formulations could serve as effective green antifungal agents for food preservation.

Background: The widespread use of plastic-based materials in food packaging, while effective in protecting food from microbial contamination and environmental stress, has raised growing environmental concerns due to their non-biodegradability and accumulation in ecosystems. As the demand for sustainable alternatives increases, attention has shifted toward developing packaging systems that not only reduce environmental burden but also enhance food preservation. Scope and approach: This review discusses recent advancements in active food packaging, focusing on the integration of bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Special emphasis is placed on the valorization of agri-food waste as a renewable and eco-friendly source of these functional ingredients. Additionally, the role of irradiation techniques in modifying and enhancing the performance of biopolymer-based packaging films is explored. Key findings and conclusions: Natural extracts obtained from food waste have demonstrated strong potential in inhibiting spoilage microorganisms and oxidative degradation, making them effective alternatives to synthetic additives. Their incorporation into biodegradable polymer matrices offers a dual benefit enhancing food safety and reducing environmental impact. Irradiation methods such as gamma, electron beam, and X-ray are shown to improve crosslinking, barrier properties, and controlled release of active compounds, contributing to improved mechanical and functional performance of packaging films. Therefore, innovations in utilizing waste-derived compounds and irradiation-assisted modifications represent a promising pathway toward sustainable, highperformance food packaging. Continued research is needed to optimize these systems for industrial applications and ensure compliance with food safety regulations.

This research aims to optimize the parameters for the production of a stable nanoemulsion containing a mixture of essential oils (EOs) with a surfactant blend (Tween and Span 80) and assess its antimicrobial potency against spoilage bacteria and foodborne pathogens. The impact of a surfactant blend's hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) as well as surfactant:oil ratio was investigated based on the mean particle size (z-average) and polydispersity index (PDI). Results showed HLB value of 12 and a ratio of surfactant to oil at 0.75:1 exhibited an emulsion with the smallest z-average and PDI. Following this, a response surface methodology (RSM) employing central composite design (CCD) was utilized to formulate an optimal nanoemulsion using the microfluidization (MF) technique. The RSM revealed that the microfluidizer pressure of 15,000 psi and 5 cycles produces a z-average of 38.11 nm, PDI of 0.27, zeta-potential of 37.8 mV, and EE of 83.8%. The comparison between the experimental and anticipated results of the optimized nanoemulsion revealed no significant differences (p > 0.05). The optimal nanoemulsion displayed excellent stability during 30 days of storage at both 4 and 30 degrees C compared to 5 days for coarse emulsion. The nanoemulsion exhibited potent antimicrobial activity, showing minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values in the range of 0.019 to 0.156 mu L/mL, surpassing the antimicrobial efficacy of the coarse emulsion, which had MIC values between 0.039 to 0.312 mu L/mL. Thus, this study emphasized the efficacy of RSM design in developing an optimal nanoemulsion with enhanced antimicrobial properties using EOs, making it a promising natural food preservative.

This study explores a new eco-friendly approach for developing bioactive gelatin films using UV-C irradiation-induced photo-crosslinking. Riboflavin, a food-grade photoinitiator, was selected at an optimal concentration of 1.25% (w/w) for crosslinking gelatin under UV-C exposure for 4 to 22 min. Physicochemical analyses revealed enhanced tensile strength, reduced water vapor permeability, and lower water solubility in films crosslinked for up to 13 min. FTIR analysis demonstrated significant molecular changes, confirming the formation of crosslinking connections in gelatin–riboflavin films. Antimicrobial nanoemulsion (NE) (0.5, 0.75, 1% v/v) was incorporated into crosslinked films and applied to fresh beef. The 1% NE film exhibited the strongest antimicrobial effect, extending shelf-life by 20 days. In vitro release study confirmed Fickian diffusion behavior in the 1% NE film. This study also investigated the synergy between 1% NE film and three different types of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on the microbiological and physicochemical properties of beef for 26 days. The best results were achieved with 1% NE film under MAP1 and MAP2, which preserved meat redness and prevented lipid oxidation, extending the shelf-life up to 26 days. Therefore, UV-C irradiation-induced crosslinked bioactive film combined with high-oxygen MAP offers a promising solution for prolonging the shelf-life of beef.

The antibacterial potential of citrus extract, EOs (mediterranean formulation, oregano, lemongrass, cinnamon and clove), organic acids and salts (citric acid, lactic acid and sodium carbonate) was evaluated against E. sakazakii, E. coli O157:H7, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, S. Typhimurium, B. cereus by determining the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Based on the results, MIC value ranges from 312.5 to 5000 ppm against tested bacterial strains, with citrus extract showing the highest antibacterial activity (312.5 ppm). Four antimicrobial formulations based on quaternary combination of compounds were developed based on the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index. Formulation 1 (Oregano/Mediterranean formulation/Citrus extract/Lactic acid), Formulation 2 (Cinnamon/Lemongrass/Citrus extract/Citric acid), Formulation 3 (Oregano/Mediterranean formulation/Citrus extract/Citric acid), Formulation 4 (Cinnamon/Lemongrass/Citrus extract/Lactic acid) showed a synergistic effect against all tested pathogens. Results demonstrated that bacterial radiosensitivity (1.34-3.99) was increased by the combined treatment of gamma-irradiation with developed formulations in frozen mother's milk. Formulation 3 and 4 induced greater radiosensitivity in bacterial strains including sporulated B. cereus (1.90 and 1.89 respectively) compared to formulation 1 and 2. Therefore, the combined treatment can be an effective method to reduce the gamma-irradiation dose (kGy) required to eliminate the pathogens and assures the safety of frozen mother's milk.

An antifungal nanoemulsion-based formulation containing natural extracts encapsulated into whey protein isolate (WPI) and maltodextrin (MD) was spray-dried and applied on grated mozzarella cheese. Formulation efficiency was evaluated to extend the shelf-life and to inhibit spoilage fungi growth. The results of the spray-dried formulation (FP) showed a retention of 62 % of the phenolic compounds, leading to a good encapsulation efficiency (72.3 %). The sensory analysis results of grated mozzarella treated with FP revealed a powder concentration of ⩽ 2 g kg-1 was appreciated compared to the control. In situ evaluation of its antifungal capacity by challenge test revealed that FP showed an inhibitory effect similar to natamycin (FN) with a reduction of 3.4 log CFU g-1 after 56 days of storage (4 °C). The shelf-life result of grated mozzarella treated with FP and FN showed the onset of fungal growth on day 35 and day 56 in SA (air) and SL (nitrogen) packaging, respectively.

Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) continue to be a persistent healthcare concern despite newer antibiotic treatments, enhanced infection control practices, and preventive strategies focused on restoring the protective intestinal microbial barrier. Recent strides in gene sequencing research have identified many genes regulating diverse virulence factors for CDIs. These genes may be over- or under-expressed when triggered by various environmental and nutritional factors. The aims of this paper are to review the important genes involved in C. difficile pathogenesis and to identify modifiable environmental, nutritional, and other factors that may trigger the expression of these genes and thus offer new strategies to prevent CDIs.

The gamma-irradiation is one of the most acceptable technologies to modify the biopolymer structure by forming a highly energetic electron. The effect of gamma-irradiation for cross-linking of gelatin (G) film in the presence of riboflavin (R) and the physicochemical properties of films were investigated. Different concentrations of R (0.3, 0.75, and 1.2% (w/w) based on the dry weight of G) and 3 doses of gamma-irradiation (5, 10, and 15 kGy) were used. The cross-linked film was incorporated with a mixture of essential oils (EOs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in order to use as an active packaging for prolonging the shelf life of meat. The results indicated 0.75% R (w/w) and 5 kGy irradiation had a positive effect on the tensile strength, water insolubility, and water barrier properties of the composite G film. Nevertheless, the reduction of film elongation (%), suggests the formation of compact structure and cross-linking through the generation of radicals. The infrared spectroscopy evaluation showed that proper irradiation dosages could produce cross-linking bonds in G film and form a denser network. In vitro and in situ microbial analyses showed that the active film incorporated with EO-AgNPs had antimicrobial activity against most spoilage and pathogenic bacteria and was able to prolong the shelf life of meat by up to 21 days. Therefore, irradiated G-R-EO-AgNP film with good mechanical and antimicrobial properties has the potential to be developed as a biodegradable food packaging material in the food industry.