Permaculture, originating in 1970s Australia, is an agroecological design system and movement founded on specific ethics and principles. It has since expanded globally, promoting agricultural systems that emulate natural processes and the communities that tend them. As we approach its 50th anniversary, we contend that permaculture provides a robust framework for global agroecological initiatives. However, permaculture is not without its critics. It has been argued that permaculture is largely influenced by Global North perspectives and inadvertently perpetuates obstacles to inclusivity, gender diversity, minority representation, and acknowledgment of traditional knowledge. Strategies to address these challenges are identified by re-examining permaculture’s foundational ethics and principles. Drawing on Global South perspectives, decolonising approaches, and holistic ecological frameworks, the paper illustrates the utility of southern theory for agroecological research to advance the essential North–South knowledge dialogue in agroecology scholarship.

This chapter focuses on literacy and linguistic diversity in Australia. Literacy educators in Australian schools face challenges, including cultural and linguistic diversity among students, communities, and workplaces; variable support from governments in fiscally unstable times; and continual professional and public debates over curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, and over the role of research and policy. But Australian educators also encounter distinctive, and some at least distinctively inflected historical, cultural, and economic features that have a bearing on their literacy efforts. To background our discussion of those efforts, the chapter opens with a selection of Australia’s demographic and administrative characteristics. This is followed by a discussion of the challenges and opportunities presented to research, practice, and policy by educational engagements with Aboriginal and migrant communities. Implications for the close relationship of literacy to community languages, to pedagogy, to policy formation and maintenance, and to research are also highlighted. Finally, international perspectives on Australian literacy education are presented, including those based on national and international assessment programs.

'Snapshot' surveys conducted over 1 year or less are widely used to describe avian community composition. Maron et al. (Austral Ecology, 2005, 30, 383) questioned the utility of snapshot surveys and the conclusions drawn from them following repeat bird surveys at 26 sites in western Victoria, 7 years after initial surveys. They concluded, 'the distribution of most species did not differ significantly from that expected if species had redistributed at random among sites'. Only five of 54 species recorded in both years had distributions that changed significantly less than expected among sites between the survey periods. We question whether this is the exception rather than the rule for Australian landbird communities in wooded habitats for three reasons: (1) passerine species dominate these communities and tend to remain faithful to a site once a breeding territory has been established; (2) most landbird species are sedentary or migratory, not nomadic; and (3) most Australian passerines are long-lived, so surveys conducted within decadal timeframes may sample the same individuals. We examined the constancy of bird community composition by conducting repeat surveys at 29 sites in two vegetation types in the Namoi Valley, northern New South Wales, 7 years after the first survey. Bird assemblage composition in our study exhibited high levels of turnover between surveys, but 21 of 62 species present in both survey periods were significantly more likely to be found at the same sites in the second period as the first, and the tendency of most species was of site fidelity. Mantel tests demonstrated that assemblage composition at the same sites was more similar than expected by chance. Moderate levels of site fidelity among species and significant levels of assemblage composition constancy among sites should be the expectation when monitoring Australian landbird communities in wooded habitats over extended timeframes, except in the cases of major landscape transformation and extreme climatic disruptions. Snapshot surveys conducted over 1 year or less are widely used to describe avian community composition. A study published in this journal reported high rates of turnover in assemblage composition and low rates of site fidelity of bird species in the Wimmera District, Victoria, when surveys were conducted 7 years after the first. In the Namoi Valley of New South Wales, we repeated snapshot surveys at 56 sites after a 7-year interval and likewise report high turnover in bird community composition, but we found strong evidence of site fidelity in many species.image

Ecological studies of common brushtail possums ( Trichosurus vulpecula ) in their extant range have been limited by technology and the species’ nocturnal habit. However, camera traps now allow the investigation of possum ethology without observer interference. Here, we analysed terrestrial possum activity patterns using a large dataset collected over 3 years from 133 camera traps in mesic eucalypt woodland and open forest in three national parks on the New England Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. We investigated how weather and moonlight intensity influenced possum activity patterns throughout the night, and across seasons and years, by using the timestamps assigned to each detection by the camera trap. Terrestrial possum activity increased as ambient temperatures decreased in autumn and peaked in winter when females were rearing offspring. Nightly possum detections decreased significantly with rain and increasing mean temperature. Possums were almost exclusively nocturnal, with most terrestrial activity earlier in the evening in winter and later at night in summer. During longer nights, higher temperatures also delayed activity. While nightly detection rates were not affected by lunar phase, possums preferred parts of the night with the highest moonlight intensity, and this effect was stronger on brighter nights. Overall, brushtail possums were most active on the ground when temperatures were mild and moonlight bright, presumably assisting foraging and predator avoidance, and during the breeding season; they avoided rain. These patterns suggest that reproduction, thermoregulation and risk of predation strongly shape the nocturnal activity cycle. Furthermore, our research adds to the evidence that camera traps can help greatly expand our knowledge of the ecology and behaviour of nocturnal mammals.

Australian insectivorous bats are known to occupy and use resources in agroecosystems, yet little is known about their diets. We analysed a scat sample each from two individual bats, both threatened species (Chalinolobus picatus and Vespadelus baverstocki), in a major dryland cotton production zone. Both bats consumed economically important agricultural and cotton pests such as Helicoverpa sp. (bollworm). Our results suggest that these two bat species share around half of the insect prey resources available whilst consuming a wide range of prey items. This snapshot of dietary data provides further evidence that insectivorous bats consume a wide range of insect prey, including pests in cropping areas.

In response to Lamont’s critique, we highlight the nuances of modelling and observing population dynamics, the benefits of cross-cultural research and ongoing challenges for fire management. We reinforce our conclusion that cultural fire management supported by science provides the most adaptive approach to support the recovery of the Backwater grevillea.

Severe impacts of herbivorous and xylophagous insects are a frequent characteristic of tree canopy diebacks globally. Insects play many roles in forest ecosystems, although they are often not explicitly included in ecosystem models used to predict forest change or guide management. Bell Miner Associated Dieback (BMAD) is a syndrome of eucalypt-canopy dieback associated with irruptions of lerp-building Psyllidae (Hemiptera) in south-eastern Australian forests. Research on BMAD has tended to focus on the role of a despotic honeyeater, the bell miner, Manorina melanophrys, rather than the management of psyllids. We reviewed the literature about the causes of BMAD, the role of bell miners, and the success of different management interventions designed to mitigate BMAD impacts. Excessive damage to eucalypt canopies by psyllids is the proximate cause of BMAD, with bell miners helping to maintain and expand psyllid infestations by excluding insectivorous birds. However, the link between bell miners and psyllid outbreaks is not entirely obligate, as both may be found in isolation. Various approaches have been used to manage BMAD, including removal of bell miners and understorey management using controlled burns and clearing, but these interventions have not been universally effective, suggesting that additional site-specific factors are critical drivers of bell miner occurrence and psyllid outbreaks. Based on a synthesis of past findings, we present a conceptual model incorporating all known or postulated factors that lead to BMAD. We also suggest three main strategic approaches to management: shrub reduction, bell miner removal, and landscape modification. However, many questions remain about the main drivers of bell miner occurrence and psyllid irruptions in eastern Australian forests, particularly in relation to the importance of forest and understorey type, environmental conditions, forest management, fire, and increasingly severe weather extremes. In addition to better understanding these factors, future studies should investigate the role of insect canopy species, including the parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of psyllids, and their interactions in different forest and understorey types under a range of environmental and management conditions and fire histories. We propose that the BMAD syndrome be broadened to include psyllid-mediated dieback in south-eastern Australian forests generally, both in areas with and without bell miners, to assist in adjusting management responses as needed to balance forest health and biodiversity outcomes with multiple forest uses on a site-by-site basis. We should not expect a one-size-fits-all solution to this complex multi-factorial dieback syndrome, and further field experiments and careful assessment of the impact of future management interventions (and controls) are needed.

High standards in managing the seed-supply chain, emphasizing sourcing and seed storage, are crucial to maintaining seed viability and ultimately to meeting restoration goals. The germination of 40 plant species was investigated in response to difficulties experienced by restoration practitioners in propagating them from seed in nurseries and in direct seeding. The species were from a biodiversity hotspot in inland eastern Australia and spanned a range of life-forms. The initial constraint identified was poor seed viability, which varied widely within and between species but was < 50% in at least one seedlot of 36 species. Low seed viability was indicated by poor seed storage and processing practices, manifest in excessive storage time, herbivory, fungal infection, and inadequate seed collection and processing (e.g. collection of immature seed and overcleaning). The main reason for low germination of viable species was seed dormancy. Dormancy was identified in 16 species: pre-sowing treatments in these species were effective in relieving dormancy or increasing germination percentage by two to three-fold. The most frequent pre-sowing treatment required was scarification. Stratification, de-husking and leaching also increased germination in some species. Temperature conditions for high germination were also investigated. Seasonal temperature treatments affected germination in 22 species. The results emphasize the necessity for (1) testing seed before use; (2) identifying temperature ranges to achieve maximum germination; (3) identifying species with germination constraints, and (4) using suitable pre-sowing treatments for plant propagation in nurseries and potentially in the field.

Indigenous self-determination, land rights and caring for Country programs are enabling Indigenous peoples across the world to re-establish customary roles in biodiversity conservation and cultural fire management. In Australia, Indigenous-controlled lands form the majority of the protected area estate, harbour almost 60% of listed threatened species and maintain high levels of biodiversity. This study used cross-cultural (Indigenous and Western academic) methods to monitor the impact of Indigenous cultural burning v. wildfire on the threatened plant, Backwater grevillea (Grevillea scortechinii subsp. sarmentosa). Cultural burning resulted in lower mature grevillea mortality and less impact on reproductive output than wildfire. Both fires stimulated a mass germination but the cultural burn preserved a multi-aged population while the wildfire killed 99.6% of mature shrubs. Comparison of fuel load changes resulting from cultural burning, hazard reduction burning and wildfire indicated that fuel loads were reduced by all fire treatments, although the cultural burn was less severe than other fires. Our case study of the Backwater grevillea and its Banbai custodians provides an example where Indigenous rangers have adopted a plant into their cultural management framework. They are conserving this threatened species using culturally driven, holistic management that is locally focused and supported by cross-cultural knowledge.

Factors influencing the efficacy of insectivorous vertebrates in providing natural pest control services inside crops at increasing distances from the crop edge are poorly understood. We investigated the identity of vertebrate predators (birds and bats) and removal of sentinel prey (mealworms and beetles) from experimental feeding trays in cotton crops using prey removal trials, camera traps and observations. More prey was removed during the day than at night, but prey removal was variable at the crop edge and dependent on the month (reflecting crop growth and cover) and time of day. Overall, the predation of mealworms and beetles was 1-times and 13-times greater during the day than night, respectively, with predation on mealworms 3–5 times greater during the day than night at the crop edge compared to 95 m inside the crop. Camera traps identified many insectivorous birds and bats over crops near the feeding trays, but there was no evidence of bats or small passerines removing experimental prey. A predation gradient from the crop edge was evident, but only in some months. This corresponded to the foraging preferences of open-space generalist predators (magpies) in low crop cover versus the shrubby habitat preferred by small passerines, likely facilitating foraging away from the crop edge later in the season. Our results are in line with Optimal Foraging Theory and suggest that predators trade-off foraging behaviour with predation risk at different distances from the crop edge and levels of crop cover. Understanding the optimal farm configuration to support insectivorous bird and bat populations can assist farmers to make informed decisions regarding in-crop natural pest control and maximise the predation services provided by farm biodiversity.

Indigenous knowledge emphasises the importance of cultural connections between humans and the biophysical world. In the face of threats to the maintenance and transfer of Indigenous knowledge, novel approaches such as seasonal calendars are emerging as tools to share knowledge and guide management of natural and cultural resources. The renewal of Indigenous cultural fire management in southeast Australia provided an opportunity to explore whether the co-production of a fire and seasons calendar, using Western and Indigenous knowledges, can support cultural fire management. We present a case study of cross-cultural collaboration between scientists and the Banbai Aboriginal rangers at Wattleridge Indigenous Protected Area, New South Wales. We reviewed literature from various disciplines (archaeological, ethnohistorical, Indigenous and ecological) and undertook participatory action research and interviews to collate relevant information. This was synthesised in Winba = Fire, the Banbai Fire and Seasons Calendar, which is used by the Banbai rangers to guide cultural burning, share cross-cultural knowledge and increase awareness of Indigenous cultural fire management. The process of co-producing knowledge, revitalising culture, caring for Country, working together and supporting self-determination is relevant for many Indigenous communities around the world.

Insectivorous bats exert top-down pressure on pest insect populations in agricultural systems globally. However, few economic estimates exist of their value as pest control agents in many high value crops. We calculated the economic benefit of direct predation of insect pests by bats and the damage averted to cotton yield, a high value commodity crop in Australia. Using a combination of bat dietary studies, average daily energy requirements (estimated by field metabolic rate), prey energy content and acoustic data of bat feeding attempts in cotton crops, we show the direct value of insectivorous bats to the Australian cotton industry is likely between $99-126 ha-1 in dryland Bt-cotton and $286-361 ha-1 in irrigated Bt-cotton through the consumption of pest moth Helicoverpa armigera, amounting to $63.6 million annually. We estimate that a population of bats can remove between 77-119 t of moths from Australian cotton crops in an average year across the growing season. However, different bat species consume different insect pests, highlighting the need to conserve bat diversity in agroecosystems. These results provide further incentive for growers to manage non-crop bat roosting habitat to benefit from natural pest control in crops.

Indigenous fire management is experiencing a resurgence worldwide. Northern Australia is the world leader in Indigenous savanna burning, delivering social, cultural, environmental and economic benefits. In 2016, a greenhouse gas abatement fire program commenced in the savannas of south-eastern Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, managed by the Indigenous Yugul Mangi rangers. We undertook participatory action research and semi-structured interviews with rangers and Elders during 2016 and 2019 to investigate Indigenous knowledge and obtain local feedback about fire management. Results indicated that Indigenous rangers effectively use cross-cultural science (including local and Traditional Ecological Knowledge alongside western science) to manage fire. Fire management is a key driver in the production of bush tucker (wild food) resources and impacts other cultural and ecological values. A need for increased education and awareness about Indigenous burning was consistently emphasized. To address this, the project participants developed the Yugul Mangi Faiya En Sisen Kelenda (Yugul Mangi Fire and Seasons Calendar) that drew on Indigenous knowledge of seasonal biocultural indicators to guide the rangers' fire management planning. The calendar has potential for application in fire management planning, intergenerational transfer of Indigenous knowledge and locally driven adaptive fire management.

Continuous livestock grazing can have negative effects on biodiversity and landscape function in arid and semi-arid rangelands. Alternative grazing management practices, such as rotational grazing, may be a viable option for broad-scale biodiversity conservation and sustainable pastoral management. This study compared ground cover, plant species composition and floristic and functional diversity along gradients of grazing intensity between a pastoral property rotationally grazed by goats and an adjacent nature reserve (ungrazed by commercial livestock) in semi-arid south-eastern Australia. Understorey plant species composition differed significantly between the rotationally grazed property and the nature reserve, with a greater proportion and frequency of palatable species recorded in the nature reserve. Understorey plant species richness, diversity, functional biodiversity measures and ground cover declined with increasing grazing pressure close to water points under commercial rotational grazing management. However, at a whole-paddock scale, there were few differences in plant biodiversity and ground cover between the rotationally grazed property and the nature reserve, despite differences in overall plant species composition. Flexible, adaptive, rotational grazing should be investigated further for its potential to achieve both socio-economic and biodiversity conservation outcomes in semi-arid rangelands to complement existing conservation reserves.

Landscape and biophysical determinants of insectivorous bat activity and community composition in space and time are central to understanding how growers can maximise bat-mediated pest control services in crops. We measured community composition, abundance, richness and foraging attempts of insectivorous bats in the centre of dryland cotton crops using acoustic sampling. We examined how bat activity was related to woody vegetation in the surrounding landscape, prey insect abundance, distance to crop edge, size of field, proximity to water-bodies and moon illumination to better understand insectivorous bat diversity and foraging in crop interiors. We collected a total of 9467 acoustic files including 1198 foraging attempts (feeding buzzes) of at least 21 insectivorous bat species. The bat assemblage in cotton crop interiors (richness and diversity) was positively related to woody vegetation foliage cover within 5-10 km of the crop, as well as Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera abundance, but was negatively related to distance from the field edge into the crop and moon illumination. Increased feeding attempts were linked to increased Lepidoptera and Hemiptera on nights of high moon illumination ( > 75 %). Bat activity and foraging was also higher during nights of increased insect abundance, particularly Lepidoptera, indicating that bats track food resources. Our results highlight the importance of managing bat roosting habitat at different landscape scales to enhance bat diversity and foraging in crop interiors and thus insect consumption. Given the high bat feeding activity on nights of high moon illumination and increased Hemiptera abundance, the timing of insecticide sprays to target pests, such as Hemipteran sucking bugs, could be scheduled on nights of low moon illumination. Such information is useful in identifying conservation priorities for the management of bats in intensively farmed agroecosystems and should facilitate habitat management by growers to maximise crop pest protection services in crop interiors.

Indigenous cultural fire management is being recognised and revived across Australia, primarily in the centre and across the north. To explore the benefits of contemporary cultural fire management in southeast Australia and barriers to its revival, we undertook a systematic analysis of the literature. Seventy documented applications of cultural fire management projects were found with the potential for significant upscaling. Over the last decade, eight policies related to Indigenous fire management have been developed by state and territory governments in southeast Australia, with varying levels of implementation. Seventy-eight benefits and 22 barriers were identified in relation to cultural fire management. In the cases where cultural fire management has been successfully reinstated as an ongoing practice, Indigenous leadership, extraordinary relationships, strong agreements and transformational change were identified as drivers of success. For cultural fire management to grow, more funding, policy implementation, long-term commitment, Indigenous control and decision making, mentoring, training and research are required. Several areas of research could facilitate the expansion of cultural fire management and be applied in similar contexts globally, including Africa and the Americas. While Indigenous voices are increasingly represented in the literature, it is imperative that mutually beneficial and respectful partnerships are developed in the cross-cultural interface of landscape fire management.