List of tables 2.1 The role of gender and working hours in the economy, 1996 7 2.2 Wage inequality and incidence of low and high pay in the USA, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, microdata versus OECD data, 1995/1996 8 2.3 The employment gap by level of pay, 1996 (full-time equivalents) 10 2.4 Employment-to-population ratios by gender and segment of pay, 1979-1996 Per cent of full population aged 15-64 11 2.5 Low-paid categories ranked by concentration ratios, 1996 (full-time equivalents) 14 2.6 High-paid categories ranked by concentration ratios, 1996 (full-time equivalents) 15 2.7 Employment shares (%) segmented by three levels of pay, 1996 18 3.1 Destinations of those in lowest 30%(highest 70o/o) of the earnings distribution in 1995 in following year 253.2 Destinations of the unemployed (inactive) in 1995 in following year 25 3.3 Earnings decile movements-United States 1994-95 27 3.4 Previous earnings of those changing employer in last 12 months (1995-96) 29 3.5 Current earnings of those changing employer in last 12 months 1995-96 29 3.6 Real wage growth in France 1990-97 (percentages) 33 3.7 Real earnings growth in Germany, 1995-96 (percentages) 33 3.8 Real earnings growth in the United Kingdom (percentages) 33 3.9 Skill-wage ratios: the Netherlands, Germany, France and the UK, 1992, 1995 and 1998 38 3.10 Wage changes by mobility category, France, Germany, Netherlands and UK, 1992-95 and 1995-98 39

This paper examines sex differences in job satisfaction by utilizing data from the 1986 UK Social and Economic Life Initiative (SCELI) household survey. It attempts to ascertain the relationship between actual and comparison pay and job satisfaction. Employees were asked on a 0–10 scale how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with their present job. They were also asked to state whether they were equitably, over or underpaid and to say how much pay they thought they deserved. Uniquely, therefore, we are able to analyse the effects of both actual and objective and subjective comparative pay measures on job satisfaction. The paper rejects the view that the higher expressed job satisfaction of women represents an innate difference rather than the results of self‐selection into jobs with highly valued attributes.

Uses a unique data set of 300 paired Turkish and Bangladeshi father and son immigrants in London to establish the extent to which immigrant workers are employed in jobs with adverse working conditions, the extent to which compensating differences in pay are obtained for such work, and the extent to which the sons are able to move out of such jobs as they become assimilated into the labour market.

The aim of this paper will be to identify the factors determining the use of ‘non‐standard employment contracts’ or what we term ‘primary flexibility’. While ‘standard employment contracts’ relate to full‐time, permanent jobs, non‐standard employment contracts concern part‐time or temporary labour and combinations of the two. In the literature non‐standard employment contracts have been lumped together with other flexible working practices, (e.g. overtime or shiftwork), under the umbrella of ‘flexibility’ or the concept of the ‘flexible firm’, which may employ one or a number of labour supply adjustment mechanisms in response to product market demand volatility. ‘Working practices’ are arrangements appertaining to the organisation of the workforce within the pre‐established basic contractual boundaries of the job, (i.e. whether it is full or part‐time, permanent or temporary). Clearly, such an amalgam of non‐standard forms of employment and flexible working practices, an organisation's use of which carries the tag ‘flexible firm’, can be misleading. The flexible firm is held by some to be the antithesis of the internal labour market (ILM) form of employment structure, in which labour is a quasi‐fixed factor of production. However, flexible working practices obviously can, and do, operate within both ILM structures and non‐standard forms of employment. The concept of the flexible firm, therefore, requires tighter definition. We would define the flexible firm as one which embodies non‐standard employment contracts for the majority of its workers, or primary flexibility. (‘Primary’ because flexibility is built into the job contract rather than superimposed). The flexible firm, thus defined, is indeed the antithesis of an ILM structure. Flexible working practices or ‘secondary flexibility’, as noted above, may operate within a flexible firm or an ILM employment structure.

Abstract. This paper surveys part of the recent voluminous literature on the economics of discrimination, focusing on two key questions. First, how should discrimination be measured and can in fact unambiguous estimates be derived, as the basis for detecting where discrimination is present and setting in train measures to eliminate it? Second, to what extent has the implementation of equal opportunities legislation improved the relative standing of women and minority workers in the labour force? This section includes a discussion of the likely effects of recent changes in the law such as the equal value amendment in the UK or the introduction of comparable worth in the USA. The survey concludes that our ability to detect discrimination at all precisely is still rudimentary and consequently policy measures are likely to be inefficient for this reason.

The objective of the research was to determine the reasons for and the extent to which organisations had adopted flexible manning arrangements, and to assess likely trends.

Since the appearance of Simon Rottenberg's seminal paper on the baseball players' labour market in theJournal of Political Economy(1956), the literature on the economics of professional team sports has increased rapidly, fuelled by major changes in the restrictive rules which had pervaded these sports, themselves a consequence of battles in the courts and the collective bargaining arena. These changes have not been limited to North America, to which most of the literature relates, but also apply to Western Europe and Australia in particular. This monograph surveys this literature covering those various parts of the world in order to draw out both theoretical and empirical aspects. However, to argue that the existence of what is now an extensive literature “justifies” such a survey on professional team sports clearly begs a number of questions. Justification can be found in at least two major aspects.

It is often the case that policy makers are slow to adopt the results of economic analysis in their policy formulation. Shiftworking is one of those rare cases where policymakers have seized upon something as having particular significance which economists have on the whole neglected. Robin Marris published a seminal work, The Economics of Capital Utilisation, in 1964, but it was not until the later 1970s that further substantial work was undertaken by economists and shiftworking appears to be regarded as hardly worth a mention in the standard labour economics texts. This relative neglect by economists is surprising given the significance and growth of shiftworking in a number of countries. Where data are available it is estimated for instance that, as a rough approximation, the number of workers engaged on shiftwork doubled between 1950 and the mid‐1970s. For the UK one estimate is that between 1954 and 1964 the proportion of manual employees working shifts in manufacturing industry increased from 12 to 20 per cent, and that by 1978 the figure was 34 per cent (that is approximately 1.5 out of 4.27 million employees). Shiftworking has in fact reflected a conflict of goals for the policymakers. On the one hand in both the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the European Commission (EC) concern has been expressed at the possible harmful effects on workers of particular shiftworking patterns and proposals have been made to limit its incidence and control its form (this being particularly the case with nightwork and with the hours of women and young persons). On the other hand, concern with the growing problem of unemployment has led policymakers in other sections of these same bodies to propose an extension of shiftworking, as one particular form of work‐sharing, in order to generate jobs. The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of shiftworking for male manual workers in British manufacturing industry in order to cast some light on these issues. In particular supply equations are estimated in order to understand what factors lead workers to select this particular form of work and demand equations to determine the nature of the employer's demand for labour. These structural equations form the basis of a simultaneous system in which plant size (measured in terms of employment) is estimated as a function of shiftworking and a vector of other explanatory variables in order to determine whether in fact it is reasonable to conclude that an extension of shiftworking will generate additional jobs in Britain. Before presenting the regression results it is however necessary to examine in more detail these socio‐economic policy aspects of shiftwork, to clarify the theoretical framework and to discuss some of the problems of estimation which stem largely from data deficiencies, but also involve problems of simultaneity notably in the relationships between shiftworking, capital intensity and plant size.

Professional football in England has been in decline for many years when measured in terms of paying spectators. In response to the growing financial problems of member clubs the Football League invited Sir Norman Chester, Chairman of an earlier investigation in 1968, to analyse the game's problems and recommend solutions including a possible restructuring of the League. The recommendations of the Chester Committee of Enquiry are evaluated from the perspective of the economist, drawing attention to the objectives of football clubs, the structure of costs, the nature of competition and the demand for the product. It is concluded that the recommendations, though in certain respects supportable, are in others flawed by failure to appreciate the economic features of the industry.

A central issue of public policy in relation to employment behaviour, particularly in the United States and Britain since the 1960s, has been the question of how to deal with discrimination against minority groups. The latter may be taken to include women, coloured employees, immigrants, foreign workers, the young and the elderly, but in this paper we concentrate on race and sex discrimination which have tended to receive most attention from both academics and policy‐makers. Further, attention is focused on the USA and Britain, partly because there is more evidence on the workings of equal opportunity legislation in the USA than in any other country, and partly for the reason that developments in Britain appear to mirror those in the USA. Since it is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate the precise extent of discrimination at the macro‐level, on account of variations in personal characteristics and establishment variables, detailed analysis of the operation of local labour markets and individual enterprises and establishments then becomes crucial. Here a feature of recent empirical work has been the emphasis placed on the internal labour market (ILM) and the related concept of the dual labour market (DLM). This is, in fact, highly relevant to equal opportunity legislation not only because it is at the level of the individual organisation or unit of employment that the laws are to be applied but also because, as will be outlined below, the legislation appears to have certain features which are consistent with a dualist interpretation of the operation of the labour market and the emphasis on equality of training and promotion opportunities is most appropriate and significant in the context of a well‐developed internal labour market.

Industrial Relations JournalVolume 9, Issue 2 p. 38-55 Race, sex and minority group discrimination legislation in North America and Britain H. C. Jain, H. C. Jain Associate Professor, McMaster University, CanadaSearch for more papers by this authorP. J. Sloane, P. J. Sloane Professor of Economics and Management, Paisley College of Technology, ScotlandSearch for more papers by this author H. C. Jain, H. C. Jain Associate Professor, McMaster University, CanadaSearch for more papers by this authorP. J. Sloane, P. J. Sloane Professor of Economics and Management, Paisley College of Technology, ScotlandSearch for more papers by this author First published: June 1978 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.1978.tb00589.xCitations: 1Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume9, Issue2June 1978Pages 38-55 RelatedInformation

Journal Article Personal Characteristics and Sex Differentials in Professional Employment Get access B. Chiplin, B. Chiplin University of Nottingham Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar P. J. Sloane P. J. Sloane Paisley College Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Economic Journal, Volume 86, Issue 344, 1 December 1976, Pages 729–745, https://doi.org/10.2307/2231449 Published: 01 December 1976