PurposeCreativity is a major success factor for marketing organizations, but little is known about the relative impact of different styles of leadership on marketing creativity. The purpose of this study was to study experimentally the distinctive effects of four contemporary leadership styles (servant-, transformational-, transactional- and laissez-faire leadership) on two dimensions of marketing creativity (i.e. originality and relevancy of brand slogans).Design/methodology/approachIn this experimental study, the authors use a sample of 526 marketing professionals to test hypotheses on the comparative effects of four leadership styles on the originality and relevancy of 1.733 generated slogans for a new brand, scored by a panel of marketing professionals. To test the hypotheses, the authors use a multi-categorical structural equation modeling technique. Robustness checks suggest that the findings are not sensitive to age, gender, education or culture.FindingsThe results show that leadership-effects on marketing creativity can be meaningfully tested using an experimental design. Specifically, the findings show that active leadership styles (servant, transformational and transactional) stimulate more creativity than passive leadership (laissez-faire). Among the active leadership styles, the authors find that servant leadership is a stronger predictor of marketing creativity than transformational and transactional leadership styles.Research limitations/implicationsRandomized experiments make it possible to draw causal conclusions about the relative effect of leadership styles (Podsakoff and Podsakoff, 2019). However, there are also limitations with experimental studies. Inspired by Van Dierendonck et al. (2014) the authors used "imaginative scenarios" to manipulate leadership style. Participants were asked to imagine themselves in the role of an employee reporting to a leader described in the scenario. Compared to real experience of leadership, this is a relatively weak (but precise) manipulation of leadership style.Practical implicationsMarketing organizations looking for new managers to supervise creative marketing activities should look for candidates with a servant leadership style and avoid laissez-faire leaders. Internal leader programs for marketing managers should enhance servant leadership skills and the ability to stimulate psychological safety. Marketing programs at business schools should develop the same skill sets in students. Theoretical knowledge is not sufficient. Educators need to assist students in developing a serving identity and form personal goals to be a servant leader.Social implicationsServant leadership has a positive effect on marketing creativity and this effect is mediated by psychological safety. This means that marketing employees feel more free to use their creative talents when their leader practice servant leadership. This effect of servant leadership is likely correlated with commitment and job satisfaction. Thus, servant leadership contributes to social sustainability of marketing organizations.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors knowledge, this study is the first to compare the effects of several major leadership styles on marketing creativity using experimental design and experts to rate the originality and relevance of real marketing ideas. For the first time it is shown empirically that servant leadership has a stronger effect on marketing creativity than other major styles of leadership, including transformational leadership.

Shame and pride are two self-conscious consumer emotions that govern social behavior and can be effective gate-ways for managerial influence. Conditions producing shame and pride are manipulated to explain how criticisms/disapproval and compliments/praise, respectively, lead to word of mouth communications and decisions to buy. Building on appraisal and adaptationist theories, this study identifies the conditions under which these effects occur by employing moderators (empathy, need to belong, public self-consciousness, and product involvement). An experimental setting was created involving a group of friends as guests in a person's home, who is serving coffee with either positive or negative environmental and pro-labor attributes. Hypotheses were tested on a representative sample of adults. Results showed that conditions triggering shame prompt individuals to engage in negative word of mouth and withdraw from purchasing behaviors, while conditions eliciting pride enhance positive word of mouth and intentions to buy. Additionally, empathy, need to belong, public self-consciousness and product involvement regulate felt shame; empathy and product involvement regulate felt pride. In addition to advancing the discussion surrounding the conceptualization of pride and shame, results enhance our understanding of the psychological mechanisms that underpin the role of emotions in consumption dynamics. The findings have implications for such managerial decisions as advertising copy, communications tactics, package design, segmentation, and media selection.

This research investigates the psychological and social drivers of healthy eating intentions and behavior using the Model of Goal-Directed Behavior (MGB), an extension of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The MGB integrates affective (anticipated emotions), habitual (past behavior), and motivational (desire) factors, offering greater predictive power compared to the TPB. This research also examines the influence of cooking for self-consumption on perceived behavioral control over healthy eating. Data were collected from 369 adults via an online survey, with 141 participants completing a follow-up survey one month later to report actual eating behavior. Results indicate that anticipated emotions and subjective norms are key predictors of healthy eating desire, while attitudes show no significant effect. Desire predicts intentions, which, in turn, drive behavior. Notably, the self-efficacy component of perceived behavioral control moderates the desire-intention relationship, challenging traditional MGB assumptions. Additionally, cooking for self-consumption enhances both internal and external factors that shape perceived behavioral control. This research contributes to the prevailing debate on the role of affect versus attitudes in shaping food consumption behaviors, highlighting the dominant role of anticipated emotions over attitudes in driving healthy eating intentions, even when accounting for past behavior and subjective norms. The research also refines and extends the MGB by incorporating food preparation as an antecedent of perceived behavioral control, suggesting a novel mechanism for fostering control over healthy eating. The findings offer practical insights for designing interventions and programs that leverage emotions, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to promote healthier eating behavior.

PurposeThis study aims to present a shorter, more managerially useful, but psychometrically sound, scale for representing brand coolness than proposed by Warren et al. (2019).Design/methodology/approachThe authors derive a 20-item scale based on the 37-item scale proposed by Warren et al. (2019) and examine its convergent, discriminant and predictive validity on data from one specified brand. Tests of hypotheses are performed on a random sample of 413 US adult consumers.FindingsThe new 20-item scale fits well the 10-factor confirmatory factor analysis model proposed by Warren et al. (2019). A multitrait-multimethod matrix analysis establishes convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, brand coolness adds unique predictive contributions explaining behavioral intentions and word of mouth over and above that provided by attitudes and self-brand connections toward the brand.Research limitations/implicationsThis investigation examines only one brand (Nike). It would be desirable to test the generalizability of the model and measures of brand coolness on other brands and do so in multiple countries.Practical implicationsThe new scale for brand coolness offers opportunities and insights to companies about how to measure and create brand coolness.Originality/valueThe original Warren et al.'s (2019) study used a sample for each analysis comprised of heterogenous brands and therefore could not make statements concerning the utility of the model for predicting any particular brand. This study demonstrates that the short scale can be validly applied to individual brands. The new scale also achieves construct validity using the stricter multitrait-multimethod analysis criteria, which Warren et al. (2019) were unable to do.

The theory of dyadic morality (TDM) is a comprehensive framework for addressing moral behaviour but to date has focused on how perceptions of harm are regulated by norms to influence felt harm through disgust, as well as directly. The present study draws upon research on corporate social responsibility and the TDM to propose that moral behaviour also can be explained by perceptions of benefits. The effects of perceived positive actions on felt benefits are proposed to follow two paths: an indirect path where moral identity moderates the effects of perceived positive actions on gratitude and a direct path. Felt benefits are then hypothesised to influence action tendencies supporting moral behaviour. Hypotheses are tested in experimental studies, with random samples of adults obtained in three countries: Norway (N = 162), Italy (N = 156) and the United States (N = 156). The findings suggest that felt vicarious gratitude by observers bolsters judged benefits provided by a corporate actor to its employees and results in positive action tendencies towards the actor. Gratitude felt in response to the good fortune of others functions to appreciate the positive in life and support an actor who benefits the public. By doing good, organisations not only help beneficiaries but seem to create cascading consequences that spill over to boost the well-being of the public, who in turn respond with favour to the benefactor.

Drawing on the model of goal-directed behavior, our study examined how buying second-hand clothing (SHC) influences desire and the conditions influencing this phenomenon. Using an experimental design targeting 398 United States and New Zealand respondents, our study found that attitude and anticipated emotions shape shopping behavior at SHC stores, and desire mediates these factors in terms of behavioral expectations. The effects were more notable for respondents concerned about others’ welfare rather than being materialistic. We provide theoretical insights into the socio-psychological mechanisms explaining how and when shopping at SHC stores shapes consumers’ desire to purchase SHC and their decisions to do so. The contingency approach in testing the moderating effects of the social material self and other-concerning values contributes to establishing boundary conditions for the main effects. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

This research reconceptualizes the Perceived Behavioral Control-Desire-Intention relationship within the Model of the Goal-Directed Behavior. First, it refines Perceived Behavioral Control by adopting the distinction made in the Theory of Planned Behavior literature between Self-efficacy and Perceived Control. Then, utilizing the Desire-Intention distinction and the motivation-opportunity-ability framework, it reinterprets the model antecedents and how they function. Specifically, it sheds light into the interaction of Desire, Self-efficacy, and Perceived Control in the regulation of Intention and, subsequently, Behavior. Data from a two-wave, online survey (N = 403) on healthy eating tests the proposed relationships. Findings reveal that Self-efficacy and Perceived Control are distinct variables and should be included in models as such. More importantly, they interact to moderate the Desire-Intention relationship. When Self-efficacy is low, Perceived Control shapes the Desire-Intention relationship. When Self-efficacy is high, the impact of Perceived Control is limited. Perceived Control has a different impact than does Self-efficacy: when Perceived Control increases, so does the effect of Self-efficacy and vice versa. The results refine the explanatory mechanisms underlying intention formation while contributing to the fine-tuning and improvement of the Model of the Goal Directed Behavior. We reveal that the mechanisms behind intention formation are more complex than originally hypothesized.

We use the model of goal-directed behavior to investigate consumer reactions to direct-to-consumer drug ads and ascertain the self-regulatory roles of moral identity and the self-concept. Four hundred and four university students, who are prime targets for smart-drugs, were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, and side-effects were manipulated. Findings show that, as consumer moral identity increases, positive emotional and attitudinal reactions decline and have diminishing effects on desires and decisions to buy smart-drugs. Likewise, as the correspondence of self-concept and desires increases, the effects of desire on decisions increase.

Harm functions complexly in moral judgement but has been treated differently in the Social Intuitionist Model (SIM) and the Theory of Dyadic Morality (TDM). Both the SIM and TDM see felt harm as an outcome of experienced negative moral emotions (e.g., disgust), but the SIM regards harm as a kind of epiphenomenon in the sense that it does not affect moral judgement or behaviour, whereas the TDM interprets harm as an essential mediator of the link between negative moral emotions and immorality. The TDM also develops an explanation for how harm functions to initiate reactions to triggering events marked by an intentional agent causing injury to a vulnerable social actor. Here norms serve a regulatory function modulating the effects of harm committed by the agent on negative moral emotions. We conduct two experiments on representative samples of adults (N1=180;N2=192$$ {N}_1=180;{N}_2=192 $$) and address two different moral contexts (companies doing badly and government doing badly with respect to a threatened health crisis), two different normative moderators (moral identity and belief in conspiracies) and two different moral action tendencies (intentions and word of mouth). Harm is found to have direct and contingent mediated effects on moral action tendencies, in accord with the TDM. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Purpose- The purpose is to use co-citation analysis of servant leadership (SL) research to investigate the evolution of the field, its subfields, gaps and opportunities for future research in a systematic manner.Design/methodology/approach- A document co-citation technique and three clustering algorithms (latent semantic index (LSI), the log-likelihood ratio (LLR) and the mutual information (MI) index) were employed to analyse 24,030 references from 549 articles spanning a period of 50 years.Findings- Cluster analyses reveal that SL research consists of eight distinct subfields: (1) conceptualisation and measurement of SL; (2) SL and related theories; (3) methodological foundations and empirical expansion of SL research; (4) individual-level cognitive effects of SL and related theories; (5) "Warmth effects" of leadership behaviour; (6) antecedents of effective leadership; (7) SL, marketing, sales management and ethics and (8) SL, job design and work engagement. Important gaps and opportunities for future research are identified.Research limitations/implications- The analyses do not show a complete picture of research on SL. Interesting works used by subgroups of SL researchers may not have enough citations to be included in the results. Moreover, bibliometric analyses do not explain the impact of books, journals and articles on the practice of SL. The authors welcome future analyses of the most influential sources of SL practice. The authors expect that managerial and practice-oriented books and journals, such as the International Journal of Servant Leadership and the Servant Leadership Theory and Practice, would play a central role in such analyses.Practical implications- The discussions of the nature of SL, its effects and antecedents are useful to leaders who want to develop a SL style or assist others in developing it. For researchers and doctoral students, the cluster analyses of co-citations give an overview of the subfields of SL research and reveal important knowledge gaps in the literature.Social implicationsSL has several favourable effects on the motivation and psychological well-being of followers. Also, followers tend to adopt a willingness to serve.Originality/value- Previous research has categorised SL research into three broad categories or phases. The cluster analyses of the co-citations reported here reveal a meaningful structure of eight distinct subfields. Knowledge gaps within the subfields represent novel opportunities for future research on SL. The authors also suggest a new subfield of SL research: pedagogical approaches to the motivation and development of SL skills.

Information and communication technologies have revolutionized the educational landscape, transforming teaching and learning processes across the globe, and this is the case for interactive digital whiteboards. In particular, this paper focuses on providing a research model to analyze the behavior towards the use of interactive digital whiteboards (IDWs) by teachers in the educational context, highlighting their impact on the intention to use IDWS. The proposed structural equation model is based on the model of goal-directed behavior and the theory of planned behavior, and it is formed by six constructs: (1) attitude, (2) subjective norms, (3) desire, (4) perceived behavioral control, (5) intentions, and (6) behavior. The methodology was adapted to two possible scenarios: (1) positive and (2) negative. The findings show that both theoretical frameworks offer a valid context to explain the motivations that drive the use of IDWs, although there are no significant differences between the two scenarios. Thus, the present article contributes to the existing body of knowledge and provides insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers to leverage the acceptance of IDWs in education. However, some limitations were identified, such as the absence of the point of view of students regarding the use of IDWs, among others.

Company activities are important contributors to climate change. Consumers take companies' actions toward environment into account when they decide to engage with these companies. We study under which conditions corporate misconduct with respect to climate change outrages consumers, eliciting negative moral emotions. Moreover, we explore the capacity of these negative moral emotions to energize consumer decisions and action tendencies to retaliate against "offending" companies. Testing two moderated mediation models on random samples of 152 adult citizens of the United States and 159 adult citizens of France, we show that negative moral emotions experienced by consumers that witness corporate malfeasance toward the climate determine negative attitudes toward the company and intentions to penalize it. Moreover, for both samples, empathy, collective self, and moral identity moderate the relationship between the perception of corporate irresponsibility and moral emotions, while the effect of political orientation is culturally specific. These findings help to uncover under which conditions consumer hostile responses toward corporate misconduct takes place.

Consumer research in global marketing boasts a number of important variables: values (Schwartz's concepts; Hofstede's framework), heuristics (decision rules), identity (global and local, cosmopolitanism), and personality/self-concept (ethnocentrism, conspicuous consumption, materialism). A shortcoming of this body of work concerns the neglect of processes and the need for theories and research grounded in causal mechanisms. Based on six fundamental psychological concepts, we reconceptualize the model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) and suggest how it can predicate basic global consumption behaviors. The key variables in the model are attitudes, emotions, cognition, desire, intentions, behavior/action, and outcomes. By integrating moderators into the MGB, it provides a general framework for explaining global consumer behavior. [GRAPHICS]

There are continuing calls for marketing to have greater individual life-changing relevance and social impact. In this paper, we address this phenomenon and discuss how meaningfulness can significantly augment the legitimacy of marketing by (1) empowering practitioners and scholars to expand their horizontal vision in combating temporal and spatial myopia and elevating the scale of the marketing processes for creating, communicating, delivering and exchanging offerings, and (2) balancing firm-interest versus customer-interest and answering a critical question of why firms exist beyond making profits. We will then provide avenues for future research directions.

Research on the positive emotions that consumers develop toward brands is well-established in the marketing literature. Studies on the negative consumer emotions toward brands have been relatively new but growing. In this paper, we report findings from a systematic literature review on one of these emotions, brand hate. We identify the antecedents and possible consequences of brand hate, comment on the literature strands that have come to define brand hate to date, and the methodologies that have been used to examine brand hate relationships. We offer a conceptual model that views brand hate as a mediational influence on brand hate antecedents and outcomes. We comment on the theoretical foundations' researchers have used as conceptual anchors in their studies and offer promising questions for future research on brand hate issues.

We experimentally investigate how and when the public responds to government actions during times of crisis. Public reactions are shown to follow different processes, depending on whether government performs in exemplary or unsatisfactory ways to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 'how' question is addressed by proposing that negative moral emotions mediate public reactions to bad government actions, and positive moral emotions mediate reactions to good government actions. Tests of mediation are conducted while taking into account attitudes and trust in the government as rival hypotheses. The 'when' question is studied by examining self-regulatory moderators governing the experience of moral emotions and their effects. These include conspiracy beliefs, political ideology, attachment coping styles and collective values. A total of 357 citizens of a representative sample of adult Norwegians were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and a control group, where complaining, putting pressure on the government and compliance to Covid-19 policies were dependent variables. The findings show that negative moral emotions mediate the effects of government doing badly on complaining and pressuring the government, with conspiracy beliefs moderating the experience of negative moral emotions and attachment coping moderating the effects of negative moral emotions. The results also show that positive moral emotions mediate the effects of government doing well on compliance with COVID-19 regulations, with political ideology moderating the experience of positive moral emotions and collective values moderating the effects of positive moral emotions.

We propose that the positive effect of coming-of-age songs on ad effectiveness arises from a mediation process where the music-evoked interpersonal memories of growing up stored in the brain and their accompanying emotions inevitably play a role, but not so straightforwardly as previously suggested. Rather, their effects work through the heightened familiarity of and peaked preferences for coming-of-age songs. We also propose that these sequentially mediated effects are moderated by viewers' developmental attachment styles. We test and find support for these propositions in three multimethod studies with more than 1200 participants born between the 40s and the mid-70s and almost 60 popular songs released between the 60s and the 2010s. We discuss the implications of our findings, namely for age-segmented video ads, and suggest future research directions.