Polygamous birds with lek-mating breeding systems often show site fidelity to display sites, leading to spatio-temporal stability of traditional leks that can persist for decades. Here, we used a mark-recapture framework to study between-year lek fidelity among adult male and female Gallinago media (Great Snipe), for two distinct breeding populations in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. We evaluated the effects of individual body size, lek size, and distance among leks on the probability of changing lek between seasons. Moreover, we were able to obtain more precise estimates of annual survival for G. media beyond previously obtained population parameters from a single lek and for males only. G. media had a low but stable annual apparent survival across both sexes and breeding populations (S = 0.571 +/- 0.019 SE). Birds showed high between-year fidelity to their leks, as we detected a relatively low probability of changing leks between seasons (Psi = 0.18 +/- 0.019 SE). Despite pronounced differences in breeding behavior between sexes, as well as habitat differences between breeding populations, they did not influence lek fidelity, and neither did individual body size nor distance between leks. However, birds at larger leks were less likely to move elsewhere in the following years. Understanding the drivers of lek changing behavior provides insights into the evolution of a lek mating strategy, and accounting for site fidelity is crucial for studying population dynamics and space use patterns. Taking the inherent limitations of estimates based on mark-capture models into account, our estimates of annual survival and site fidelity for G. media can be used to inform management decisions and conservation strategies. Return rates to the same breeding site in different seasons vary among mating systems in waders. Monogamous birds tend to be more site faithful than polygamous ones, but in lekking species, both sexes are often highly faithful to the leks. We studied Gallinago media (Great Snipe) in two distinct breeding populations to measure both annual survival and lek fidelity, using long-term ringing data. We found that G. media rarely switch leks between breeding seasons, and high lek fidelity is shared by both sexes and both breeding populations of this species. Site fidelity likely explains how traditional leks can be in the same place for decades, frequently exceeding the lifespan of a single individual. Given the low annual survival estimates of adults, the information on lek locations must be easily accessible for the first-time breeders, additionally facilitating stability of traditional lekking sites. Las aves pol & iacute;gamas con sistemas reproductivos basados en leks suelen mostrar fidelidad al sitio de exhibici & oacute;n, lo que conduce a la estabilidad espacio-temporal de leks tradicionales que pueden persistir durante d & eacute;cadas. Aqu & iacute; utilizamos un enfoque de marcado-recaptura para estudiar la fidelidad interanual a los leks en machos y hembras adultos de Gallinago media en dos poblaciones reproductivas distintas de Europa oriental y Escandinavia. Evaluamos los efectos del tama & ntilde;o corporal individual, el tama & ntilde;o del lek y la distancia entre leks sobre la probabilidad de cambiar de lek entre temporadas. Adem & aacute;s, pudimos obtener estimaciones m & aacute;s precisas de la supervivencia anual de G. media m & aacute;s all & aacute; de los par & aacute;metros poblacionales previamente obtenidos a partir de un & uacute;nico lek y solo para machos. Gallinago media present & oacute; una supervivencia aparente anual baja pero estable en ambos sexos y poblaciones reproductivas (S = 0.571 +/- 0.019 EE). Las aves mostraron una alta fidelidad interanual a sus leks, ya que detectamos una probabilidad relativamente baja de cambiar de lek entre temporadas (Psi = 0.18 +/- 0.019 EE). A pesar de las marcadas diferencias en el comportamiento reproductivo entre sexos, as & iacute; como de las diferencias de h & aacute;bitat entre las poblaciones reproductivas, estos factores no influyeron en la fidelidad al lek, ni tampoco lo hicieron el tama & ntilde;o corporal individual o la distancia entre leks. Sin embargo, las aves en leks m & aacute;s grandes tuvieron menor probabilidad de desplazarse a otros sitios en los a & ntilde;os siguientes. Comprender los factores que determinan el cambio de lek proporciona informaci & oacute;n sobre la evoluci & oacute;n de la estrategia reproductiva basada en leks, y considerar la fidelidad al sitio es crucial para estudiar la din & aacute;mica poblacional y los patrones de uso del espacio. Teniendo en cuenta las limitaciones inherentes de las estimaciones basadas en modelos de marcado-recaptura, nuestras estimaciones de supervivencia anual y fidelidad al sitio para G. media pueden utilizarse para orientar decisiones de manejo y estrategias de conservaci & oacute;n.

Mitigating loss of genetic diversity is a major global biodiversity challenge1, 2, 3-4. To meet recent international commitments to maintain genetic diversity within species5,6, we need to understand relationships between threats, conservation management and genetic diversity change. Here we conduct a global analysis of genetic diversity change via meta-analysis of all available temporal measures of genetic diversity from more than three decades of research. We show that within-population genetic diversity is being lost over timescales likely to have been impacted by human activities, and that some conservation actions may mitigate this loss. Our dataset includes 628 species (animals, plants, fungi and chromists) across all terrestrial and most marine realms on Earth. Threats impacted two-thirds of the populations that we analysed, and less than half of the populations analysed received conservation management. Genetic diversity loss occurs globally and is a realistic prediction for many species, especially birds and mammals, in the face of threats such as land use change, disease, abiotic natural phenomena and harvesting or harassment. Conservation strategies designed to improve environmental conditions, increase population growth rates and introduce new individuals (for example, restoring connectivity or performing translocations) may maintain or even increase genetic diversity. Our findings underscore the urgent need for active, genetically informed conservation interventions to halt genetic diversity loss.

National, subnational, and supranational entities are creating biodiversity strategy and action plans (BSAPs) to develop concrete commitments and actions to curb biodiversity loss, meet international obligations, and achieve a society in harmony with nature. In light of policymakers' increasing recognition of genetic diversity in species and ecosystem adaptation and resilience, this article provides an overview of how BSAPs can incorporate species' genetic diversity. We focus on three areas: setting targets; committing to actions, policies, and programs; and monitoring and reporting. Drawing from 21 recent BSAPs, we provide examples of policies, knowledge, projects, capacity building, and more. We aim to enable and inspire specific and ambitious BSAPs and have put forward 10 key suggestions mapped to the policy cycle. Together, scientists and policymakers can translate high level commitments, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity's Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, into concrete nationally relevant targets, actions and policies, and monitoring and reporting mechanisms.

Genetic diversity is essential for maintaining healthy populations and ecosystems. Several approaches have recently been developed to evaluate population genetic trends without necessarily collecting new genetic data. Such “genetic diversity indicators” enable rapid, large-scale evaluation across dozens to thousands of species. Empirical genetic studies, when available, provide detailed information that is important for management, such as estimates of gene flow, inbreeding, genetic erosion and adaptation. In this article, we argue that the development and advancement of genetic diversity indicators is a complementary approach to genetic studies in conservation biology, but not a substitute. Genetic diversity indicators and empirical genetic data can provide different information for conserving genetic diversity. Genetic diversity indicators enable affordable tracking, reporting, prioritization and communication, although, being proxies, do not provide comprehensive evaluation of the genetic status of a species. Conversely, genetic methods offer detailed analysis of the genetic status of a given species or population, although they remain challenging to implement for most species globally, given current capacity and resourcing. We conclude that indicators and genetic studies are both important for genetic conservation actions and recommend they be used in combination for conserving and monitoring genetic diversity.

Ungulate species have experienced severe declines over the past centuries through overharvesting and habitat loss. Even if many game species have recovered thanks to strict hunting regulation, the genome-wide impacts of overharvesting are still unclear. Here, we examine the temporal and geographical differences in genome-wide diversity in moose (Alces alces) over its whole range in Sweden by sequencing 87 modern and historical genomes. We found limited impact of the 1900s near-extinction event but local variation in inbreeding and load in modern populations, as well as suggestion of a risk of future reduction in genetic diversity and gene flow. Furthermore, we found candidate genes for local adaptation, and rapid temporal allele frequency shifts involving coding genes since the 1980s, possibly due to selective harvesting. Our results highlight that genomic changes potentially impacting fitness can occur over short time scales and underline the need to track both deleterious and selectively advantageous genomic variation.

Biodiversity underlies ecosystem resilience, ecosystem function, sustainable economies, and human well-being. Understanding how biodiversity sustains ecosystems under anthropogenic stressors and global environmental change will require new ways of deriving and applying biodiversity data. A major challenge is that biodiversity data and knowledge are scattered, biased, collected with numerous methods, and stored in inconsistent ways. The Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network (GEO BON) has developed the Essential Biodiversity Variables (EBVs) as fundamental metrics to help aggregate, harmonize, and interpret biodiversity observation data from diverse sources. Mapping and analyzing EBVs can help to evaluate how aspects of biodiversity are distributed geographically and how they change over time. EBVs are also intended to serve as inputs and validation to forecast the status and trends of biodiversity, and to support policy and decision making. Here, we assess the feasibility of implementing Genetic Composition EBVs (Genetic EBVs), which are metrics of within-species genetic variation. We review and bring together numerous areas of the field of genetics and evaluate how each contributes to global and regional genetic biodiversity monitoring with respect to theory, sampling logistics, metadata, archiving, data aggregation, modeling, and technological advances. We propose four Genetic EBVs: (i) Genetic Diversity; (ii) Genetic Differentiation; (iii) Inbreeding; and (iv) Effective Population Size (Ne ). We rank Genetic EBVs according to their relevance, sensitivity to change, generalizability, scalability, feasibility and data availability. We outline the workflow for generating genetic data underlying the Genetic EBVs, and review advances and needs in archiving genetic composition data and metadata. We discuss how Genetic EBVs can be operationalized by visualizing EBVs in space and time across species and by forecasting Genetic EBVs beyond current observations using various modeling approaches. Our review then explores challenges of aggregation, standardization, and costs of operationalizing the Genetic EBVs, as well as future directions and opportunities to maximize their uptake globally in research and policy. The collection, annotation, and availability of genetic data has made major advances in the past decade, each of which contributes to the practical and standardized framework for large-scale genetic observation reporting. Rapid advances in DNA sequencing technology present new opportunities, but also challenges for operationalizing Genetic EBVs for biodiversity monitoring regionally and globally. With these advances, genetic composition monitoring is starting to be integrated into global conservation policy, which can help support the foundation of all biodiversity and species' long-term persistence in the face of environmental change. We conclude with a summary of concrete steps for researchers and policy makers for advancing operationalization of Genetic EBVs. The technical and analytical foundations of Genetic EBVs are well developed, and conservation practitioners should anticipate their increasing application as efforts emerge to scale up genetic biodiversity monitoring regionally and globally.

One of the main challenges for conservation today is monitoring and understanding changes in biodiversity. Genetic diversity provides the foundation for biodiversity and is necessary for long-term survival, adaptation, and resilience not only for individuals, but also for populations, species, and entire ecosystems. Monitoring genetic diversity across different time points is a first step to gain insight into the extent to which populations or species might be at risk, to guide conservation action and to provide evidence for solutions. This guidance document aims to be a resource that guides the reader through the decision and evaluation processes that take place when designing a genetic diversity monitoring programme and identifying the most appropriate set of species or populations to monitor. This guidance document is intended for practitioners (including governmental agencies, NGOs, but also locally responsible conservationists such as land managers) who need to monitor genetic diversity of species in the wild.

Information on genetic population structure provides important knowledge for species conservation. Yet, few studies combine extensive genetic data to evaluate the structure and population dynamics of transboundary populations. Here we used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), microsatellites and mitochondrial haplotypes to analyze the genetic population structure of wolverines (Gulo gulo) across Fennoscandia using a long-term monitoring dataset of 1708 individuals. Clear population subdivision was detected between the Scandinavian and the eastern Finnish population with a steep cline in the contact zone. While the Scandinavian population showed isolation by distance, large swaths of this population were characterized by high connectivity. Areas with high resistance to gene flow are likely explained by a combination of factors, such as historical isolation and founder effects. From a conservation perspective, promoting gene flow from the population in eastern Finland to the northwest of Scandinavia could augment the less variable Scandinavian population, and increase the demographic resilience of all subpopulations. Overall, the large areas of low resistance to gene flow suggest that transboundary cooperation with aligned actions of harvest and conflict mitigation could improve genetic connectivity across Finland, Sweden, and Norway.

Genetic diversity is one of the three main levels of biodiversity recognised in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Fundamental for species adaptation to environmental change, genetic diversity is nonetheless under-reported within global and national indicators. When it is reported, the focus is often narrow and confined to domesticated or other commercial species. Several approaches have recently been developed to address this shortfall in reporting on genetic diversity of wild species. While multiplicity of approaches is helpful in any development process, it can also lead to confusion among policy makers and heighten a perception that conservation genetics is too abstract to be of use to organisations and governments. As the developers of five of the different approaches, we have come together to explain how various approaches relate to each other and propose a scorecard, as a unifying reporting mechanism for genetic diversity. Policy implications. We believe the proposed combined approach captures the strengths of its components and is practical for all nations and subnational governments. It is scalable and can be used to evaluate species conservation projects as well as genetic conservation projects.

Genetic diversity is a key aspect of biological variation for the adaptability and survival of populations of species and must be monitored to assure maintenance. We used data from the Swedish Red List 2020 and from published reviews to apply three indicators for genetic diversity proposed for the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). We studied a wide range of taxonomic groups, and made more detailed indicator assessments for mammals and herptiles.For indicator 1, the proportion of populations with effective population size Ne > 500, 33% of 22,557 investigated species had a population size estimate that could be used as a proxy for Ne. For herptiles and mammals, 70% and 49% of populations of species, respectively, likely had Ne > 500.Data for evaluation of indicator 2, the proportion of remaining populations or historical range, was available for 20% of all species evaluated for the Red List. Meanwhile, 32% of the herptile and 84% of the mammal populations are maintaining their populations and range.For indicator 3, the number of species or populations in which genetic diversity is monitored using DNA-based methods, there are genetic studies on 3% of all species, and 0.3% are beeing monitored genetically. In contrast, 68% of mammals and 29% of herptiles are studied using DNA, and 8% of mammals and 24% of herptiles are genetically monitored.We conclude that the Red List provides data that are suitable for evaluating the genetic indicators, but the data quality can be improved. We also show that the genetic indicators capture conservation issues of genetic erosion that the Red List misses.There is a synergy in estimating the genetic indicators in parallel with the Red Listing process. We propose that indicator values could be included in national Red Listing as a new category - “genetically threatened”, based on the genetic indicators.

Several factors affect the flight altitude of migratory birds, such as topography, ambient temperature, wind conditions, air humidity, predation avoidance, landmark orientation, and avoiding over-heating from direct sunlight.(1-6) Recent tracking of migratory birds over long distances has shown that migrants change flight altitude more commonly and dramatically than previously thought.(4-8) The reasons behind these altitude changes are not well understood. In their seasonal migrations between Sweden and sub-Saharan Africa, great snipes Gallinago media make non-stop flights of 4,000-7,000 km, lasting 60-90 h.(9,10) Activity and air pressure data from multisensor dataloggers showed that great snipes repeatedly changed altitudes around dawn and dusk, between average cruising heights about 2,000 m (above sea level) at night and around 4,000 m during daytime. Frequency and autocorrelation analyses corroborated a conspicuous diel cycle in flight altitude. Most birds regularly flew at 6,000 m and one bird reached 8,700 m, possibly the highest altitude ever recorded for an identified migrating bird. The diel altitude changes took place independently of climate zone, topography, and habitat overflown. Ambient temperature, wind condition, and humidity have no important diel variation at the high altitudes chosen by great snipes. Instead, improved view for orientation by landmarks, predator avoidance, and not least, seeking cold altitudes at day to counteract heating from direct sunlight are the most plausible explanations for the diel altitude cycle. Together with similar recent findings for a small songbird,(6) the great snipes' altitudinal performance sheds new light on the complexity and challenges of migratory flights.

International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have committed to conserve, and sustainably and equitably use, biodiversity. The CBD is a vital instrument for global conservation because it guides 195 countries and the European Union in setting priorities and allocating resources, and requires regular reporting on progress. However, the CBD and similar policy agreements have often neglected genetic diversity. This is a critical gap because genetic diversity underlies adaptation to environmental change and ecosystem resilience. Here we aim to inform future policy, monitoring, and reporting efforts focused on limiting biodiversity loss by conducting the largest yet evaluation of how Parties to the CBD report on genetic diversity. A large, globally representative sample of 114 CBD National Reports was examined to assess reported actions, progress, values and indicators related to genetic diversity. Although the importance of genetic diversity is recognized by most Parties to the CBD, genetic diversity targets mainly addressed variation within crops and livestock (a small fraction of all species). Reported actions to conserve genetic diversity primarily concerned ex situ facilities and legislation, rather than monitoring and in situ intervention. The most commonly reported status indicators are not well correlated to maintaining genetic diversity. Lastly, few reports mentioned genetic monitoring using DNA data, indigenous use and knowledge of genetic diversity, or development of strategies to conserve genetic diversity. We make several recommendations for the post-2020 CBD Biodiversity Framework, and similar efforts such as IPBES, to improve awareness, assessment, and monitoring of genetic diversity, and facilitate consistent and complete reporting in the future.

Biologiska overvakningsprogram ar en central del for uppfoljningen av konventionen for biologisk mangfald (CBD). Genetisk mangfald ar identifierad av CBD som en av tre nivaer av biologisk mangfald, ...

Genetic diversity is critically important for all species-domesticated and wild- to adapt to environmental change, and for ecosystem resilience to extreme events. International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have committed to conserve and sustainably and equitably use all levels of biodiversity-genes, species and ecosystems-globally. However, assessment and monitoring of genetic diversity are often overlooked, and there are large knowledge and policy gaps regarding genetic diversity conservation. In this study, we present the first quantitative analysis of genetic diversity assessments conducted by Parties to the CBD. We conducted a detailed, systematic analysis of 114 CBD 5th (submitted 2014) and 6th (submitted 2018) National Reports to quantitatively assess actions, progress on targets, values and indicators related to genetic diversity. First, we found that the importance of genetic diversity is recognised by most Parties to the CBD, and that recognition increased over time. However, genetic targets mainly addressed genetic diversity within cultivated plants, farm animals, and crop wild relatives, with little focus on other wild species. Also, actions for conserving genetic diversity primarily concerned ex-situ facilities and policy, rather than monitoring and intervention for maintaining genetic diversity in situ . The most commonly used indicators of genetic diversity status were the number of genetic resources in conservation facilities, number of threatened breeds, and Red List Index, which are not well correlated to genetic erosion in most species -- highlighting that genetic change is poorly monitored by current indicators. Lastly, analyses of genetic data observations, indigenous use and knowledge of genetic diversity, and strategies being developed and implemented to conserve genetic diversity are highly under-reported. We make several recommendations for the post-2020 CBD Biodiversity Framework to improve awareness, assessment, and monitoring, and facilitate consistent and complete reporting of progress of genetic diversity in future National Reports. Article Impact Statement An analysis of genetic diversity in CBD National Reports neglects non-domesticated species and demonstrates need for sufficient indicators.

Ecological specialisation, e.g. in terms of prey preferences, can have important implications for population biology. Bee-eaters are considered diet specialists; they hunt aerial insects, particularly hymenopterans. However, the Blue-cheeked bee-eater (Merops persicus) has been considered a special case, as it preferentially feeds upon dragonflies (Odonata). Here we review current literature on the diet of the Blue-cheeked bee-eater, and conclude that this species is not as restricted to dragonflies as previously suggested. Instead, populations in different parts of the breeding and wintering ranges seem to specialise on various types of insects (such as wasps, bees, dragonflies, butterflies and mosquitoes).

Genetic approaches have proved valuable to the study and conservation of endangered populations, especially for monitoring programs, and there is potential for further developments in this direction by extending analyses to the genomic level. We assembled the genome of the wolverine (Gulo gulo), a mustelid that in Scandinavia has recently recovered from a significant population decline, and obtained a 2.42 Gb draft sequence representing >85% of the genome and including >21,000 protein-coding genes. We then performed whole-genome resequencing of 10 Scandinavian wolverines for population genomic and demographic analyses. Genetic diversity was among the lowest detected in a red-listed population (mean genome-wide nucleotide diversity of 0.05%). Results of the demographic analyses indicated a long-term decline of the effective population size (Ne ) from 10,000 well before the last glaciation to <500 after this period. Current Ne appeared even lower. The genome-wide FIS level was 0.089 (possibly signaling inbreeding), but this effect was not observed when analyzing a set of highly variable SNP markers, illustrating that such markers can give a biased picture of the overall character of genetic diversity. We found significant population structure, which has implications for population connectivity and conservation. We used an integrated microfluidic circuit chip technology to develop an SNP-array consisting of 96 highly informative markers that, together with a multiplex pre-amplification step, was successfully applied to low-quality DNA from scat samples. Our findings will inform management, conservation, and genetic monitoring of wolverines and serve as a genomic roadmap that can be applied to other endangered species. The approach used here can be generally utilized in other systems, but we acknowledge the trade-off between investing in genomic resources and direct conservation actions.

versity among the lowest ever detected in a red-listed population. Demographic analyses indicate that there has been a long-term decline of the effective population size, starting well before the last glaciation. We also found strong genome-wide signatures of inbreeding, but this effect was not observed when analysing a set of highly variable SNP markers for extended genotyping, illustrating that such markers can give a biased picture of the overall character of genetic diversity. Population genomic analyses revealed significant population structure with implications for connectivity and conservation. We used an integrated microfluidic circuit chip technology to develop an SNP-array consisting of 96 highly informative markers that, together with a multiplex pre-amplification step, was successfully applied to low-quality DNA from non-invasively collected scat samples. This work will facilitate management, conservation actions and genetic monitoring of wolverines, and also serves as a genomic roadmap that can be applied to conservation monitoring of other endangered species.