Heterologous plant protein blending enhances nutritional and functional properties, yet the molecular mechanisms of amyloid fibril co-assembly remain underexplored. This study explores PSP-QP co-fibrillation to clarify the links between mixing ratio, structural evolution and physicochemical properties. Regarding nutritional properties, the composite proteins exhibited a significant synergistic effect on bioaccessibility. Notably, the PQ1:4 blend demonstrated superior performance, releasing 183.6% more free amino acids after in-vitro digestion compared to PSP alone. In terms of fibrillation potential, the co-assembly pathway was found to be highly ratiodependent. PSP-dominated systems successfully formed extensive and interconnected fibrillar networks, whereas QP-rich systems predominantly yielded compact, disordered aggregates. This morphological divergence was confirmed through multiscale characterization; after 24 h of acid-heat treatment, mature, well-defined fibrils were observed in PSP and PQ1:1 systems, while high QP content led to amorphous or fragmented structures. Spectroscopic analysis revealed that this fibrillation process is driven by a conformational transition from random coils to beta-sheets, a transformation significantly modulated by the rigid structure of QP. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations unveiled the atomistic basis for these interactions. Pumpkin 11S globulin forms a highly stable complex with quinoa 11SB globulin (Delta G = -132.5 kcal/mol), driven by hydrophobic and van der Waals forces. This stable heterodimer serves as a critical nucleus for ordered fibril growth. Conversely, its interaction with quinoa 2S albumin proved unstable, leading to dissociation and amorphous aggregation. This study elucidates the regulatory mechanism of PSP-QP co-fibrillation, supporting the controllable construction and high-value plant-based food applications of heterologous plant protein amyloid fibrils.

With the growing demand for precise nutrition and functional foods, oral thin films (OTFs) have emerged as innovative, non-invasive and consumer-friendly platforms for delivering food-derived bioactive compounds. Unlike conventional gastrointestinal-based systems, OTFs can exhibit rapid oral dissolution, localized mucosal contact and mucosal absorption. These advantages potentially provide ability in effectively transferring bioacitves from food ingredients. However, current studies in the food field remain vague with limited standardization in formulation, evaluation and functional interpretation. This review establishes a food-oriented framework for OTFs by redefining their classification according to dominant functional profiles, including fast-dissolving, mucoadhesive and sustained-release films, and major oral application sites, including sublingual, buccal and tongue surface regions. The physicochemical characteristics, advantages and limitations of natural and synthetic polymers are compared. Representative fabrication methods, including solvent casting, printing technologies, electrospinning, hot-melt extrusion and freeze-drying, are discussed in relation to food-grade requirements and scalability. Furthermore, this review summarizes three major application pathways: local oral protection and oral-health support, enhancement of ingredient stability and mucosal transport, and product development integrating with structural design, sensory modulation and personalized nutrition. Current challenges related to ingredient–matrix stability, process scalability, sensory–function balance, real-use validation and regulatory standardization are also analyzed. Overall, OTFs show the potential as food-grade delivery systems for bioactive compounds by integrating classification, materials, processing, functionality, sensory design and translational considerations.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES:Oats and oat bran are rich in polyphenols and soluble fiber, which are metabolized by gut microbiota into bioactive compounds. Previous studies identified ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid (3-HPP), and avenanthramide C (AVC) as key microbial metabolites with protective effects against colitis. METHODS:This study aimed to elucidate their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and underlying mechanisms using LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and AAPH-induced oxidative stress in zebrafish embryos. All three metabolites significantly reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α). They also restored mitochondrial membrane potential and enhanced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. RESULTS:In vivo, treatment improved zebrafish survival, normalized SOD activity to 76-89% of control levels, and decreased ROS and MDA by 2.4 to 3.8 fold, with UDCA showing the greatest efficacy. Molecular docking revealed strong binding affinities to Keap1, particularly UDCA, which interacted with residues Met577, Ala440, Val532, and Val486. qRT-PCR further demonstrated downregulation of Keap1 and upregulation of Nrf2 and SOD, indicating activation of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway. CONCLUSIONS:Collectively, these findings show that oats and bran-derived microbial metabolites exert potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects via modulation of the Keap1-Nrf2 axis. Among the metabolites, UDCA exhibited the strongest biological activity at equivalent concentrations. This study provides mechanistic insight into how microbiota-derived oat metabolites contribute to redox balance and immune regulation, supporting their potential as functional components in dietary strategies for managing oxidative stress-related inflammatory diseases.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES:Zeaxanthin and lutein, which are essential dietary xanthophylls existing abundantly in free and esterified forms, require efficient intestinal absorption due to their insufficient synthesis in humans. However, limited knowledge on intestinal uptake and transport of xanthophyll esters is available. METHODS:This study investigated the cellular uptake and transport mechanism of free and esterified xanthophylls using human Caco-2 cell monolayer, with lutein, zeaxanthin and their dipalmitates as representatives. RESULTS:The results showed that free xanthophylls were uptaken without cellular re-esterification. Esterified xanthophylls were predominantly uptaken in free forms, as evidenced by Caco-2 cells incubated with zeaxanthin and lutein dipalmitates containing 80.8% and 89.4% of zeaxanthin and lutein, along with minor amounts of monoesters and diesters, respectively. Subsequent basolateral detection of both free xanthophylls and monoesters also confirmed intact ester uptake. Additionally, time- and concentration-dependent uptake patterns were observed, with all xanthophylls showing moderate permeability. Mechanistically, SR-BI and NPC1L1 were involved in the uptake of both free and esterified xanthophylls. At the expression level, free and esterified xanthophylls differentially affected ABCG5, with significant upregulation observed only in response to free xanthophylls. Tight junction integrity remained unaffected, excluding paracellular transport. Uptake of free and esterified xanthophyll micelles also involved clathrin- and caveolae-dependent endocytosis, whereas macropinocytosis was excluded. CONCLUSIONS:These findings provide insight into the uptake behavior of free and esterified xanthophylls and the transporter- and endocytosis-related processes involved.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES:Diet plays a critical role in the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Our previous work demonstrated that oats and oat bran alleviate dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice by modulating the gut microbiota. METHODS:To further explore the underlying mechanisms, this study combined metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses to systematically compare the effects of whole oats and oat bran interventions on chronic colitis. RESULTS:Untargeted metabolomics analysis identified three key metabolites, ursodeoxycholic acid, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid, and avenanthramide C. The interactions between these metabolites and core proteins of the IL-17 signaling pathway (IL-17A, TRAF6, and ACT1) were evaluated via molecular docking. Transcriptomic and RT-qPCR analyses revealed that both oats and oat bran interventions modulated the IL-17, PI3K-Akt, and TNF signaling pathways. These treatments significantly upregulated the expression of tight junction proteins (claudin-1, claudin-5, occludin) while reducing levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Molecular docking results demonstrated stable binding between the three metabolites and target proteins primarily through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, with ursodeoxycholic acid exhibiting the highest binding affinity. CONCLUSIONS:Collectively, these findings suggest that oats and oat bran may alleviate chronic colitis by modulating the IL-17 signaling pathway and enhancing intestinal barrier function.

Plant polysaccharide nanoparticles (PPNPs) are promising delivery systems for functional bioactive substances due to their abundance, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity. This review methodically encompasses the preparation methods for starch, pectin and cellulose nanoparticles and their recent applications in delivering hydrophobic and hydrophilic active ingredients, probiotics and volatile antimicrobial agents. Notably, we highlight Caenorhabditis elegans as a strategic in vivo pre-screening platform that bridges the gap between cell-based assays and mammalian models. Leveraging its well-defined genetic background, transparent body, and highly conserved signalling pathways, C. elegans as a highly promising initial screening platform that provides preliminary theoretical support for the further standardization and validation of PPNPs in mammalian models. The paper concludes with an analysis of the challenges in this field, such as large-scale production, long-term stability and safety evaluation. The aim is to provide theoretical guidance for the development and application of plant polysaccharide nanodelivery systems in functional foods.

Anthocyanins, despite their remarkable physiological activities, suffer from poor stability, restricting their applications. In this study, malt endogenous amylase-hydrolyzed cassava nanostarch (MCS) was used as a carrier to prepare MCS/anthocyanin (MCS/ANTH) composite nanoparticles via nanoprecipitation method. The optimal preparation parameters were determined as follows: temperature 30 °C, ethanol volume 70 %, ANTH concentration 3 mg/mL, MCS concentration 4 mg/mL, and pH 4.0, under which the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) reached 78.23 % and 75.65 %, respectively. The composite nanoparticles showed an increased particle size (from 520 nm to 659 nm) with ANTH encapsulated possibly via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, as confirmed by CLSM and FTIR. They exhibited sustained in vitro release, improved storage stability (51.68 % retained after 21 days), and preserved long-term antioxidant activity (89.43 % DPPH scavenging at 8 h). This research provides theoretical guidance for the development of novel anthocyanin preparations and their application in precision nutrition interventions.

The enzymatic preparation of nanostarch exhibits specific and efficient. However, commercial amylases face issues of expensive and time-consuming extraction, which limit their application. This study obtained cassava nanostarch (MCS) from Cassava starch (CS) treated with malt endogenous amylase, followed by structural characterization and property exploration. The results demonstrated that CS was converted into MCS (515 nm) after 4 h of enzymolysis, transitioning from smooth spheres to rough nanoparticles. Compared to CS, the water solubility index of MCS increased from 34.4 % to 82.1 %, and its transparency increased from 55.8 % to 76.8 %. However, the swelling power of MCS decreased from 24.5 g/g to 6.62 g/g. The adsorption capacity of MCS for anthocyanin (226 mg/g) was twice higher than that of CS, conformed to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Freundlich isothermal model. This study could provide new ideas for the green and efficient preparation of nanostarches and a promising activity delivery system.

Background: COVID-19 triggered an unprecedented global public health emergency with catastrophic economic consequences. Upon infection, innate immune system detects viral patterns through pattern recognition receptors, triggering an antiviral defense response. Objective: Bioactive compounds, such as quercetin, curcumin, and beta-glucan, regulate innate immunity to combat viral infections. These compounds are well-known for their powerful anti-inflammatory and immune- regulating properties, which hold great potential for applications in food science, pharmaceuticals, and healthcare. Results: Scientists suggest that bioactive compounds from fruits, vegetables and whole grains are associated with innate immunity, especially in gut-liver-brain axis regulation getting more and more important. Evidence suggests several promising bioactive compounds play an important role in innate immunity, including quercetin, curcumin and (3-glucan. Quercetin regulates the innate immune primarily by inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing inflammatory factors, and modulating the NF-kappa B pathway. Curcumin exerts immunomodulatory effects by inhibiting innate immune signaling molecules and maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. (3-glucan regulates the innate immune response by stimulating the TLR4 receptor, activating macrophages, generating chemokines, and maintaining the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses. Conclusion: The gut-liver-brain axis is increasingly important for the regulation of innate immunity. Bioactive compounds regulate innate immunity through the gut-liver-brain axis via several mechanisms: (1) enhancing macrophage phagocytosis and preventing the entry of harmful microbials into the body; (2) inhibiting the translocation of NF-kappa B from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in the gut through metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids; and (3) modulating the intestinal microbiota to maintain the integrity of the blood-brain barrier.

The black goji berry (Lycium ruthenicum Murr.) is noted for its abundant anthocyanins with notable bioactive properties, offering both nutritional and medicinal benefits. This study compared aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) and acidified ethanol extraction (AEE) for obtaining black goji berry anthocyanins (BGA and BGE), followed by purification with AB-8 resin. We found that BGA, obtained through ATPE, had 12.26 % higher anthocyanin content than BGE, with total sugars being only 19.29 % of that in BGE. UPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis identified 23 anthocyanins in BGA and 26 in BGE. The predominant component in both extracts was petunidin-3O-glucoside, accounting for 54.34 % and 42.51 % of the total anthocyanins in BGA and BGE, respectively. Moreover, BGA exhibited significantly higher in vitro antioxidant activities, consistent with its higher anthocyanin content. Our study suggests that ATPE proves superior to AEE in terms of purifying anthocyanins and enriching the primary anthocyanin component. Further investigation revealed that BGA significantly enhanced the healthspan of Caenorhabditis elegans under oxidative stress, including reducing lipofuscin accumulation, improving resistance to UV irradiation and heat stress. These protective effects rely on JNK-1 and DAF-16/FOXO transcription factors. Non-targeted metabolomics analysis showed that BGA modulates key metabolic pathways, such as the ErbB and MAPK signaling pathways and glycerophospholipid metabolism, thereby promoting the metabolic state of the worms, repairing oxidative stress damage, and boosting antioxidant defense. In conclusion, our findings support the development and utilization of black goji berry anthocyanins as a high-quality natural antioxidant resource with potential applications in anti-aging and antioxidative stress functional foods.

Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities in white and black sesame seeds were investigated during a simulated in vitro digestion. The levels of phenolic compounds, flavonoids and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values of sesame seeds increased by over 50 % after simulated stomach, small and large intestine digestion. A higher cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) and a higher inhibition of HepG2 cell proliferation were found in the extract from small intestine digestion phase. In comparison with Aijiao Bawangbian (white color), the phenolics, flavonoids, ORAC values, CAA values and antiproliferative activity of Changzhi II (black color) were higher both before and after simulated digestion. In tested phenolics, sesamol and ferulic acid showed better antioxidant and antiproliferative activities than pinoresinol diglucoside, pinoresinol, sesamolin, and sesamin in cellular level. Sesame seed has considerable cellular antioxidant and antiproliferative activities both before and after simulated digestion, which merits further investigation in vivo studies.

Background/Objectives: Oats and oat bran are rich in dietary fiber, polyphenols and other phytochemicals. Methods: In this study, we evaluated the phytochemical content and established LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage inflammation and DSS-induced Caco-2 cell inflammation models to investigate the anti-inflammatory activities of oat and oat bran polyphenols and their molecular mechanisms. Results: The results showed that oat and oat bran polyphenols (free and bound polyphenols) enhanced phagocytosis, decreased the expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), reduced the production of NO and ROS, increased the mitochondrial membrane potential, and reduced the inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) at the gene level in the RAW 264.7 macrophage inflammation model induced by LPS expression, thus demonstrating strong anti-inflammatory activity. In Caco-2 cells, oat and oat bran polyphenols pretreatment attenuated the DSS-induced decrease in trans-epithelial electron resistance value, increased tight junction protein expression, and reduced cell permeability in Caco-2 cell monolayers, which in turn reduced inflammatory damage in the organism. Conclusions: In summary, the present study not only reveals the mechanism by which oat and oat bran polyphenols inhibit macrophage inflammation and impairment of intestinal barrier function at defined concentration in vitro, but also highlights potential for oat bran as a functional food.

BACKGROUND:Astaxanthin (ASTA) has anti-aging properties but is limited by poor oral bioavailability. Nanostarch has emerged as a promising carrier to enhance the delivery of bioactive compounds, attracting growing interest in functional food research. This study prepared ASTA-loaded tapioca starch nanoparticles and characterized their structure. Meanwhile, Caenorhabditis elegans was used as a model to study the anti-aging activity of nanostarch-astaxanthin (NS-ASTA). RESULTS:The resulting NS-ASTA exhibited an average particle size of 187.13 ± 10.24 nm with an improved polydispersity index of 0.398, compared to 0.559 for the carrier. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses confirmed the successful formation of a composite via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Furthermore, in the C. elegans model, NS-ASTA treatment significantly extended the maximum lifespan from 20 to 26 days under identical culture conditions. Compared with ASTA, NS-ASTA enhanced the worm's resistance to heat and ultraviolet stress, improved motility, and reduced intestinal lipofuscin accumulation. A 42.46% reduction in accumulation was observed in the NS-ASTA-treated (0.8 mg mL-1) group compared to the ASTA group. The lifespan-extending effect of NS-ASTA was absent in the short-lived daf-16 mutant strain, and NS-ASTA promoted nuclear translocation of DAF-16 transcription factors. CONCLUSION:NS-ASTA exhibits superior anti-aging activity over free ASTA, and extends lifespan and improves health in C. elegans via the DAF-16 pathway. This study provides a theoretical basis for developing novel ASTA formulations and anti-aging products. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Black goji berry (Lycium ruthenicum Murr.) is well-known for its high nutritional and medicinal value, largely due to its rich content of naturally occurring anthocyanins, which exhibit various health-promoting bioactivities. In this study, we established a paraquat-induced oxidative stress model in Caenorhabditis elegans and found that black goji berry anthocyanins (BGA) significantly extended lifespan and improved mobility. Additionally, BGA significantly increased catalase (CAT) activity and the GSH/GSSG ratio, while reducing oxidative damage markers, including ROS, malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein carbonyl levels, demonstrating potent anti-oxidative stress activity in vivo. Furthermore, BGA improved mitochondrial morphology, partially restored damaged mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and ATP levels, and elevated relative mitochondrial DNA level under oxidative stress. By analyzing pyruvate, lactate, and TCA cycle metabolites, we hypothesize that BGA may enhance energy metabolism, with its mitochondrial protective effects mainly attributed to its petunidin derivatives, particularly petunidin-3-O-glucoside. Gene expression analysis revealed that BGA upregulated key electron transport chain genes, including cco-1, atp-2, and clk-1, potentially enhancing energy metabolism. Further investigation of lifespan, ROS levels, and gene expression in clk-1 mutants confirmed the critical role of clk-1 in BGA-mediated mitochondrial protection and oxidative stress resistance. Our findings provide new insights into the molecular pathways through which BGA exerts its protective effects against oxidative stress in vivo, supporting the potential use of black goji berry and its anthocyanins as functional foods and nutrients with anti-oxidative stress and mitochondrial-protective properties.

BACKGROUNDBlueberries and apples exhibit favorable bioactivity and health benefits as a result of their rich phytochemicals. Natural phytochemicals exist in complex forms, but there are few reports on whether have additive, synergistic or antagonistic effects between different phytochemicals. The present study aimed to elucidate the synergistic effects of blueberry extract (BE) and apple peel extract (APE) together with respect to inhibiting the proliferation of HepG2 liver cancer cells. Meanwhile, phytochemical characterization of BE and APE was conducted by HPLC, and total antioxidant activity was determined via a cellular antioxidant activity assay, oxygen radical absorption capacity assay and peroxy radical scavenging capacity assay.RESULTSThe results showed that BE and APE were rich in phytochemicals and had potent antioxidant activities, which synergistically inhibited cell proliferation. In the bilateral combination, the dose reduction index value increased by two-fold, and the combination index value at 95% inhibition was less than 1. Additionally, BE + APE supplementation could promote the expression levels of p53 and c-myc genes. In conclusion, the BE and APE had strong antioxidant activity and exhibited synergistic inhibition against proliferation of HepG2 cells.CONCLUSIONThe present study can provide a theoretical basis for the synergistic effect of different phytochemicals in health care. & COPY; 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

BACKGROUND:The black goji berry (Lycium ruthenicum Murr.) is known for its abundance of high-quality natural antioxidants, particularly anthocyanins. Black goji berry anthocyanins (BGA) are receiving increasing attention because of their high safety and beneficial biological activities. Studies have shown that oxidative stress is a key factor affecting aging, whereas antioxidants are critical preventive and delaying strategies. RESULTS:In the present study, we investigated the potential anti-aging effects and mechanism of BGA using the Caenorhabditis elegans model. We found that BGA prolonged the mean lifespan of nematodes and improve their healthspan, including locomotion, pharyngeal pumping rate and stress resistance. Subsequently, we observed a significant decrease in reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde levels in nematodes after administering BGA. Moreover, BGA enhanced the activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase, and elevated the glutathione disulfide/glutathione ratio. We confirmed that BGA exerted excellent antioxidative stress activity in nematodes, which may contribute substantially to its anti-aging effects. The health benefits of BGA in C. elegans might be closely related to petunidin-3-O-glucoside, the most abundant anthocyanin in BGA. Further mechanistic investigation revealed that the JNK-1 and DAF-16/FOXO pathways, rather than the calorie restriction pathway, were responsible for the antioxidant stress and life-prolonging effects of BGA in nematodes. CONCLUSION:Our research provides a theoretical foundation for studying the anti-aging effect of BGA and a basis for developing black goji berry and its anthocyanins as functional foods with anti-aging and antioxidative stress benefits. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

In this study, the structural characters, antioxidant activities and bile acid-binding ability of sea buckthorn polysaccharides (HRPs) obtained by the commonly used hot water (HRP-W), pressurized hot water (HRP-H), ultrasonic (HRP-U), acid (HRP-C) and alkali (HRP-A) assisted extraction methods were investigated. The results demonstrated that extraction methods had significant effects on extraction yield, monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, particle size, triple-helical structure, and surface morphology of HRPs except for the major linkage bands. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that HRP-U with filamentous reticular microstructure exhibited better thermal stability. The HRP-A with the lowest molecular weight and highest arabinose content possessed the best antioxidant activities. Moreover, the rheological analysis indicated that HRPs with higher galacturonic acid content and molecular weight showed higher viscosity and stronger crosslinking network (HRP-C, HRP-W and HRP-U), which exhibited stronger bile acid binding capacity. The present findings provide scientific evidence in the preparation technology of sea buckthorn polysaccharides with good antioxidant and bile acid binding capacity which are related to the structure affected by the extraction methods.

Mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by elevated oxidative stress, impaired energy balance, and dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics, is a hallmark of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its comorbidities. Ferulic acid (FA), a principal phenolic compound found in whole grains, has demonstrated potential in ameliorating oxidative stress and preserving energy homeostasis. However, the influence of FA on mitochondrial health within the context of MetS remains unexplored. Moreover, the impact of FA on autophagy, which is essential for maintaining energy homeostasis and mitochondrial integrity, is not fully understood. Here, we aimed to study the mechanisms of action of FA in regulating mitochondrial health and autophagy using palmitate-treated HepG2 hepatocytes as a MetS cell model. We found that FA improved mitochondrial health by restoring redox balance and optimizing mitochondrial dynamics, including biogenesis and the fusion/fission ratio. Additionally, FA was shown to recover autophagy and activate AMPK-related cell signaling. Our results provide new insights into the therapeutic potential of FA as a mitochondria-targeting agent for the prevention and treatment of MetS.

The vibrating superfine mill (VSM) is a machine that belongs to the micronization technique. In this study, VSM was employed to produce micronized tapioca starch by varying micronization times (15, 30, 45, and 60 min). The structural and physicochemical properties of the micronized starch were then examined. Scanning electron microscopy studies revealed that micronized starch was partially gelatinized, and the granule size dramatically increased when micronization time increased. X-ray diffraction patterns showed that the relative crystallinity was decreased from 24.67% (native) to 4.13% after micronization treatment for 15 min and slightly decreased after that. The solubility of micronized starch significantly increased as the micronization time increased, which was associated with the destruction of the starch crystalline structure. Differential scanning calorimetry investigations confirmed that micronized starch was "partly gelatinized," and the degree of gelatinization increased to 81.27% when the micronization time was 60 min. The weight-average molar mass was reduced by 15.0% (15 min), 30.9% (30 min), 55.7% (45 min), and 70.5% (60 min), respectively, indicating that the molecular structure was seriously degraded. The results demonstrated that the physicochemical changes of micronized starch granules were related to the destruction of the starch structure. These observations would provide details on micronized starch and its potential applications.Practical ApplicationThese observations would provide details on micronized starch and its potential applications. Moreover, we believe that when the structures of starches were known, it is probable that the effect of VSM on the structural and physicochemical properties change of other starches might be predicted by adjusting the processing time.

Introduction Food is a critical factor of chronic inflammation. Few studies tried to quantize inflammatory effects of food. Moreover, the discrepancies in inflammatory effects among foods within the same food group are frequently ignored. Objectives This study aimed to compare inflammatory effects of food based on Food Composition Tables via a Food Inflammation Index (FII). We aimed to reveal heterogeneity within food groups in dietary guidelines and identify the key components. Methods The FII was adapted from Dietary Inflammation Index (DII) with a weighted algorithm, validated by NHANES.The Food Inflammation Scores of Individuals (FISI) of various dietary patterns were analyzed and compared. FII scores were converted to percentages for intuitive grading using the United States Department of Agriculture Food Composition Table (USDA-FCT), and China-FCT was also used for validation.The FII scores of various food groups based on USDA-FCT and dietary guidelines were counted and compared to reveal the heterogeneity within food groups. Results FII proves effective in delineating food inflammatory effects. It reveals substantial inflammatory risk even with adherence to the Mediterranean diet, highlighting the need to address intra-group heterogeneity. Within USDA-FCT, nuts and select vegetable oils (rich in flavonoids and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) are notable anti-inflammatory foods, contrasting with pro-inflammatory meats high in saturated fats. According to the current dietary nutrition guidelines, the inflammatory effects of food groups vary greatly. Further subdivision of food groups can weaken the problem of heterogeneity within food groups, thereby providing more accurate dietary recommendations. Conclusion Quantifying the inflammatory effects of whole foods is important for general consumers to realize their own dietary inflammatory exposure risk. The FII reveals the heterogeneity within food groups and can be a reference for dietary recommendations. This public tool could be beneficial for consumer choice, dietary guideline revision, science research for healthier eating.