Annona crassiflora Mart., the marolo fruit of the Cerrado biome, is one of the most frequently consumed species from the Brazilian Midwest. This study aimed to evaluate the chemical composition and the antioxidant and cytotoxic properties of the fruit pulp of A. crassiflora collected at Chapada das Mesas, Maranhão, Brazil. The volatile concentrate was identified as mainly ethyl octanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and methyl octanoate. From the ethanol (LFP-E) and ethyl acetate (LFP-A) extracts were identified phenolic acids (p-coumaric, gallic, quinic, and ferulic), flavones and derivatives (apigenin, epicatechin, 2′-5-dimethoxyflavone, 3′,7-dimethoxy-3-hydroxyflavone, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside and 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, procyanidin B2, and rutin), aporphine alkaloids (xylopine, stephagine, and romucosine), and acetogenin (annonacin). For the LFP-E and LFP-A extracts, the total phenolic compound values were 15.89 and 33.16 mg GAE/g, the flavonoid compound content values were 2.53 and 70.55 mg QE/g, the DPPH radical scavenging activity showed EC50 values of 182.54 and 57.80 µg/mL, and the ABTS radical activity showed TEAC values of 94.66 and 192.61 µM TE/g. The LFP-E extract showed significant cytotoxicity and cell selectivity for the U251-glioma strain, presenting a GI50 value of 21.34 µg/mL, which is close to doxorubicin (11.68 µg/mL), the standard chemotherapeutic drug. The marolo fruit seems to be a promising source for developing innovative and healthy products for the food industry.

The concentrations of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, quercetin, rutin, ferulic acid, and the major metals in graviola (Annona muricata), atemoya (A. squamosa x A. cherimola), fruta do conde (A. squamosa), biribá (Rollinia mucosa), and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba) were determined by UPLC-ESI (−)-MS/MS. It enabled the identification and quantification of phenolic compounds. Catechin was only found in atemoya, at a concentration of 38.6 μg/g-dw. Only 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid was found in the fruit pulps of all five fruits analyzed. Atemoya stands out for not only having catechin but also for having much more epicatechin (239 μg/g-dw) than the other fruits. At the same time, graviola had more p-coumaric acid (62.6 μg/g-dw), and the North American pawpaw had more chlorogenic acid (48.1 μg/g-dw) than the other fruits. Metals were determined by ICP equipped with axially viewed plasma. All five fruit pulps had relatively high levels of potassium, with concentrations ranging from 7640 to 15,000 μg/g-dw, with pawpaw being the lowest and atemoya being the highest. The concentrations of other metals ranged from Ca 547 to 1110, Na 14.3 to 123, P 1210 to 1690, Mg 472 to 980, Mn 1.86 to 5.27, and Zn 5.55 to 7.32 μg/g-dw. All five fruits in the Annonaceae family that were analyzed in this study have several phenolic compounds in them and were good sources of potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.

Background: Inflammation is one of the most misunderstood aspects of human health. People have been encouraged to eat foods that have a high antioxidant capacity, and in vitro tests for total antioxidant capacity emerged. They were based on measuring the destruction of oxidized test compounds in direct reactions with the antioxidants in foods. Many dietary supplements arrived in the market. They contained purified antioxidants, such as resveratrol and EGCG that were and still are widely assumed by many to be quite healthy at any dose. Methods: The literature on inflammation and the Nrf2/ARE antioxidant system was searched systematically. Articles from prestigious, peer-reviewed journals were obtained and read. The information obtained from them was used to write this review article. Results: Over 150 articles and books were read. The information obtained from them showed that very few dietary antioxidants exert their effects by reacting directly with Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species (RONS). Instead, most of the effective antioxidants activate the endogenous Nrf2/ARE antioxidant system. This helps prevent smoldering inflammation and the diseases that it can cause. However, when overactivated or activated constitutively, the Nrf2/ARE antioxidant system can cause some of these diseases, including many types of multidrug resistant cancer, autoimmune, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. Conclusion: Even though green tea, as well as many fruits, vegetables and spices are quite healthy, dietary supplements that deliver much higher doses of antioxidants may not be. People who are diagnosed with cancer and plan to start chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy should probably avoid such supplements. This is because multidrug resistant tumors can hijack and overactivate the Nrf2/ARE antioxidant system.

The fruits from graviola trees (Annona muricata) are used to make a juice that is quite popular in Puerto Rico in the United States, as well as in Mexico, Brazil, Malaysia, China, India and many other countries. Graviola is also known as soursop and guanábana. The vast majority of the scientific literature on graviola describes its potential health effects—especially its anticancer activity. However, overconsumption of graviola fruit and products made from it has been linked to an atypical form of Parkinson's disease that does not respond to the standard treatment (l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine or l-DOPA) (Caparros-Lefebvre and Elbaz, 1999). More recently, it was shown that chronic consumption of graviola juice can trigger and aggravate the phosphorylation of cerebral tau protein, leading to tau pathologies, including Parkinson's disease (Rottcholl et al., 2016). This is due to the presence of a class of neurotoxic compounds called acetogenins (Smith et al., 2015). They are present in not just graviola fruit, seeds, and leaves, but also the fruit, seeds, and leaves of other plants in the Annonaceae family (Höllerhage et al., 2015). Acetogenins exhibit their neurotoxic and anticancer properties by inhibiting the mitochondrial NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I of the respiratory chain) (Höllerhage et al., 2009). Neurotoxicity is also caused by redistributing the tau protein and modulating the phosphorylation of histone proteins (Lee et al., 2011). There are four goals of this chapter. First, the chemical properties of neurotoxic acetogenins are described. Second, the previously published in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological data that demonstrated the ability of acetogenins and graviola juice to cause atypical Parkinson's disease is given. Third, the concentrations of acetogenins that were found in graviola and other fruits in the Annonaceae family is presented, along with a description of the methods used to quantify them. Finally, other important compounds and nutrients that are present in graviola and other fruits in the Annonaceae family are listed. This includes fatty acyl glycosides that act as detergents that suspend lipophilic acetogenins in juices and other aqueous solutions, making them more bioavailable.

Notwithstanding the fact that the multiple roles of oxidative stress in human biology and pathology have been intensely discussed over the last half century, the problem is still far beyond our full comprehension. Thus, in a comparatively short history of oxidative medicine, the roles of two major heroes, free radicals and antioxidants, have been entirely redefined. Free radicals and other reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, widely recognized two-three decades ago as absolute evils leading to and/or accompanying damage to biologically important molecules and structures, have been recently transformed into positive actors, in the appreciation of their essential impact in the intracellular signaling on the organism's defense against biotic and abiotic stresses. Several original research papers published in this special issue have been focused on this subject. The evidence for detrimental cross interaction of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species was shown in a single clinical case report of rare human disease (Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (M. Falabella et al.)). The chronic change in the NO homeostasis and enhanced superoxide availability contributed to dysfunction of peripheral blood mononuclear cells derived from a patient due to a cooperative action of nitrosative and oxidative stresses in driving on the genetically determined pathology. Relations between endothelial nitric oxide synthase genotypes and oxidative stress markers in patients with larynx cancer were studied in an original research (K. Yanar et al.). The results indicated a potential relationship among G894T polymorphism of NOS3 and impaired redox homeostasis that may influence the risk of laryngeal cancer. An interesting mechanism of adaptation to oxidative stress evolved in enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, consisting of upregulation of Shiga toxin production by prophages of the bacteria in response to H 2 O 2 excretion by infected human neutrophils, was described by K. Licznerska and coauthors. The intestinal haemorrhage induced by this type of bacteria depends mainly on Shiga toxin cytotoxicity. This way enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli become tolerant to natural redox-based antibacterial defense of the host organism. One could assume that the modulation of hydrogen peroxide production by human neutrophils could be a promising strategy against this type of bacterial virulence/toxicity. The role of the exo-xis region of the bacterial genome in the induction of Shiga toxin-converting prophages is further elucidated by the same group of authors (K. Licznerska and coauthors). Unfortunately, the great hope that direct antioxidants could be the panacea resolving practically all health problems has vanished, due to the growing number of …

Inflammation is one of the most misunderstood aspects of human health [1]. Part of the misunderstanding is based on the assumption that data obtained from model organisms such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, mice, rats and dogs are relevant. That is, caloric restriction without starvation has extended the life spans of these organisms [2]. Lowering the consumption of calories in them reduced the total metabolic rate and the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), as well as free radicals [3]. Note that many authors prefer the term reactive oxygen species, or ROS, over RONS. According to the free radical theory of aging [4], the accumulation of damage caused by free radicals cause’s problems in aging and eventually death. That is, oxidative metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the mitochondria produce RONS and free radicals which can oxidize and damage DNA, lipids and proteins and lead to cancer as well as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [3,4]. However, there is an antioxidant paradox [5]. Dietary antioxidants have low bioavailabilities. Also, giving large doses of dietary antioxidant supplements to human subjects has seldom had any preventative or therapeutic effects. Moreover, most antioxidants (especially phenolic compounds) don’t work by reacting directly with RONS and free radicals [5].

Background: The cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco, L) is in the Chrysobalanaceae family. It has a pantropical distribution, with 18-20 genuses and at least 500 species. This family is comprised of trees and shrubs, with alternating, simple leaves with stipules (small and deciduous).Objective: The objectives of this study were to determine: (1) the fatty acid profile in cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco, L) seed oil by High Resolution Gas Chromatography (HRGC), (2) the melting point by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). In addition, the relatively high concentration of unsaturated fats makes it a potentially nutritious food. This includes oleic acid (C18:1) and a low concentrations of lauric (C12:0), myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) acids.Method: HRGC and DSC.Results: The melting point of 24.29 degrees C makes this a vegetable oil.Conclusion: Since it has 4 to 5% solids at body temperature (36.5 to 37 degrees C), it would be useful in the food industry.

Background: The ume (Prunus mume Siebold et Zucc.) or Chinese plum is used to prepare many food products and is used in traditional medicine.Methods: In this study, 26 clones grown in the Jundiai do Centro de Frutas do Instituto Agronomico (IAC), in Sao Paulo, Brazil were analyzed. The fruits from each clone were placed in polystyrene trays, wrapped in polyvinyl chloride film and stored at 8 degrees C for 21 days. Portions of each sample were collected every three days and analyzed for weight loss and yield of pulp, as well as ascorbic acid, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, pH and colors of the pulp and peel.Results: The results were submitted to principal component analysis by dividing the clones into four groups. Clones 6 and 18 produced the most pulp, while clone 3 had the lowest respiratory activity. Clones 13 and 15 had intermediate respiratory activity when compared to the others. However, they did not lose as much weight during storage. Clones 15 and 1 had the largest concentration of ascorbic acid.Conclusion: These results can be used to select the best clones for each commercial application.

Background: Persimmons of the Rama Forte variety are well-accepted in the market, but the harvest season is short. The use of post-harvest treatment, such as UV-C radiation can extend the shelf life of the fruits. So, the ability of UV-C radiation and refrigeration to preserve these persimmons was studied.Methods: The fruits were harvested manually while their peels were yellow and then exposed to UV-C for 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 min, placed in polystyrene bags and stored at 7 +/- 1 degrees C and 85 +/- 5% relative humidity.Results: The loss of mass did not exceed 0.5% for any treatment. The peak respiratory activity occurred on the 5th day, but the production of CO2 was lower (50.2 mL of CO2 Kg(-1) h(-1)) for the fruits that were exposed to UV-C for 10 min. The pH, soluble solids, titratable acidity and color did not show significant differences between different methods of post-harvest treatment. On the other hand, the concentrations of total phenolics, anthocyanins and carotenoids decreased after the fruits were irradiated with UV-C light.Conclusion: The loss of mass did not exceed 0.5% for any treatment. The peak respiratory activity occurred on the 5th day, but the production of CO2 was lower (50.2 mL of CO2 Kg(-1) h(-1)) for the fruits that were exposed to UV-C for 10 min. The pH, soluble solids, titratable acidity and color did not show significant differences between different methods of post-harvest treatment. On the other hand, the concentrations of total phenolics, anthocyanins and carotenoids decreased after the fruits were irradiated with UV-C light.

High resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) was able to determine that the m/z of the [M+H]+ ion formed by an unknown compound that was purified by preparative scale liquid chromatography (LC) was 137.05966. This was done rapidly and easily by direct infusion. Neither a column nor chromatography was needed. This is within 0.4 ppm of the mass calculated by ThermoFisher’s exact mass calculator for the protonated version of C8H8O2. Based on this, the compound could have been 2’-, 3’- or 4’-hydroxyacetophenone or 2’-, 3’- or 4’-methoxybenzaldehyde. However, 1H- and 13C-NMR spectra of the isolated compound showed that it was 4’-hydroxyacetophenone, without needing a standard. Neither mass spectrometry (MS) nor NMR could have identified this compound by itself. Finally, HRMS was also able to verify that another peak isolated by preparative scale LC was apocynin, or 4’-hydroxy-3’-methoxyacetophenone.https://doi.org/10.21423/jrs-v04n03p014 (DOI assigned 5/31/2019)

A jelly prepared from Eugenia brasiliensis fruit pulp was developed and evaluated for its rheological and sensorial properties, as well as its color. The fruit pulps were acidic (0.29 +/- 0.03 g citric acid equiv.100g(-1) pulp) and contained 95.29 +/- 0.03% water, soluble solids (5 degrees Brix), proteins (0.27 +/- 0.17%), lipids (0.13 +/- 0.02%) and a relatively low energy content (35.16 kcal). Several minerals were quantified. Here are the amounts of some of the most important minerals that were found in 100g of pulp: calcium (19.8 mg), potassium (160 mg), magnesium (6.61 mg) copper (91.9 mu g), chromiun (4.23 mu g) and manganese (0.07 mg). Analysis of the rheological properties of the pulp showed that it did not follow any of the standard mathematical models: the Power Law, Ostwald-Waele and Herschell-Bulkley, but the jelly followed the Power Law model, with the behavior of a non-Newtonian fluid. The colors of the jellies were also evaluated using the standard parameters L*, a*, b*, C* e h degrees. The sensory analysis of the gel containing 0.3% pectin showed an acceptability index ranging from 83.66 to 91.11%. The index for the intention to buy the jelly was 83%. So, the jelly is a good option for using this under-appreciated fruit.

Background: Jussara (Euterpe edulis Martius) is a palm tree in the Arecaceae family that is native to the Atlantic forest in Brazil. The fruits are round and dark purple due to their anthocyanin content. They have similar sensorial and nutritional properties as acai berries. However, they have been reported to have a higher concentration of anthocyanins than acai. Traditionally, the fruits have been preserved by freezing them. However, to the best of our knowledge, nobody has ever tried to compare the nutritional value and biochemical composition of these fruits when they were frozen slowly or fast. So, the goals of this investigations were to quantify the moisture and organic compounds in fresh jussara fruit, as well as fruit that had been frozen fast vs slow.Methods: The fruit pulp was submitted to slow vs. rapid freezing. Both samples were analyzed for water, total solids, ash, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, soluble fiber and insoluble fiber in jussara fruit pulp were determined.Results: The moisture content was a little higher when the fruit pulp was frozen slowly. There was a decrease in total solids, ash, insoluble solids, total acidity, anthocyanin content and pH when frozen slowly. Also, jussara was low in carbohydrates and a good source of dietary fiber.Conclusion: The moisture content was a little higher when the fruit pulp was frozen slowly. There was a decrease in total solids, ash, insoluble solids, total acidity, anthocyanin content and pH when frozen slowly. Also, jussara fruit was low in carbohydrates and a good source of dietary fiber.

The increase in oxidative stress and inflammatory responses associated with neurodegenerative diseases has drawn considerable attention towards understanding the transcriptional signaling pathways involving NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) and Nrf2 (Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-like 2). Our recent studies with immortalized murine microglial cells (BV-2) demonstrated effects of botanical polyphenols to inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) and enhance Nrf2-mediated antioxidant responses (Sun et al., 2015). In this study, an immortalized rat astrocyte (DI TNC1) cell line expressing a luciferase reporter driven by the NF-κB or the Nrf2/Antioxidant Response Element (ARE) promoter was used to assess regulation of these two pathways by phytochemicals such as quercetin, rutin, cyanidin, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, as well as botanical extracts from Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Sutherlandia frutescens (Sutherlandia) and Euterpe oleracea (Açaí). Quercetin effectively inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB reporter activity and stimulated Nrf2/ARE reporter activity in DI TNC1 astrocytes. Cyanidin and the glycosides showed similar effects but only at much higher concentrations. All three botanical extracts effectively inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB reporter activity. These extracts were capable of enhancing ARE activity by themselves and further enhanced ARE activity in the presence of LPS. Quercetin and botanical extracts induced Nrf2 and HO-1 protein expression. Interestingly, Ashwagandha extract was more active in inducing Nrf2 and HO-1 expression in DI TNC1 astrocytes as compared to Sutherlandia and Açaí extracts. In summary, this study demonstrated NF-kB and Nrf2/ARE promoter activities in DI TNC1 astrocytes, and further showed differences in ability for specific botanical polyphenols and extracts to down-regulate LPS-induced NF-kB and up-regulate the NRF2/ARE activities in these cells.

Background: Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammation process that can affect the systemic inflammatory response syndrome, mainly in obese individuals. The passion fruit peel flour (PFPF) is rich in fibers that help to reduce cholesterol and blood glucose levels.Methods: In this study, AP was induced by 5% sodium taurocholate inoculation (biliopancreatic duct). The prognosis was evaluated after treatment with PFPF in obese rats overfed during lactation. PFPF (40 mg/kg b.w.) was administered by oral gavage five h after AP induction or sham surgery. Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups: control; sham (CSP), AP (CP) and AP treated with PFPF (40mg) (CP40); obese, sham (OSP), AP (OP), and AP treated with PFPF (40mg) (OP40).Results: The results demonstrated a significant reduction of blood glucose and triglyceride concentrations after PFPF treatment, compared to AP groups. PFPF treated groups also had lower concentrations of IL-6, and an increased concentration of IL-10 in the OP40 group.Conclusion: In conclusion, PFPF delays the absorption of simple carbohydrates, due to being rich in pectin (in gel form). This improved glycemic control after AP induction. This may be useful in improving the inflammatory response during acute pancreatitis.

Graviola leaves (Annona muricata L., (ceae) are used by some people to try to treat or even cure cancer, even though over-consumption of the fruit, which contains the neurotoxins annonacin and squamocin has caused an atypical form of Parkinson’s disease. In previous analyses, the fruits were extracted with methanol under ambient conditions before analyses. In the present study, UPLC-QTOF-MS and NMR were used to analyze freeze-dried graviola leaves that were extracted using dry methanol and ethanol at 100° C and 10MPa (100atm) pressure in a sealed container. Methanol solubilized 33% of the metabolites in the lyophilized leaves. Ethanol solubilized 41% of metabolites in the lyophilized leaves. The concentrations of total phenolic compounds were 100.3 ±2.8 and 93.2 ± 2.0 mg gallic acid equivalents per g of sample, for the methanolic and ethanolic extracts, respectively. Moreover, the toxicophore (unsaturated 7-lactone) that is present in neurotoxic acetogenins was found in the lipophilic portion of this extract. The concentrations of the neurotoxins annonacin and squamocin were found by UPLC-QTOF-MS to be 305.6 ± 28.3 and 17.4 ± 0.89 (xg/g-dw, respectively, in the dried leaves. Pressurized methanol solubilized more annonacin and squamocin than ethanol. On the other hand, a hot, aqueous infusion solubilized only 0.213% of the annonacin and too little of the squamocin to be detected. So, graviola leaves contain significant amounts of the neurotoxins annonacin and squamocin, as well as some potentially healthy phenolic compounds. Finally, the potential neurotoxicity of whole leaves in dietary supplements could be much higher than that of a tea (hot aqueous infusion) that is made from them.

The fruits and leaves of the embaúba tree (Cecropia Pachystachya Trécul) harvested in the region of the state of Rio de Janeiro were analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, ash, soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, carbohydrates, pH, acidity and minerals. The fresh fruit and leaves had 71.8 and 62.4% moisture, 0.54 and 1.13% protein, 0.68 and 0.46% total fat, 0.50 and 0.96% ash, 0.11 and 0.19% soluble fiber, 2.60 and 2.19% insoluble fiber, 23.8 and 32.7% total carbohydrates, 0.04 and 0.06% acidity and pH values of 5.98 and 5.1, respectively. The fruit and leaves are also good sources of magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe). They provide >100% of the dietary reference intake (DRI) for adults. Lyophilized fruits and leaves were also extracted by hot, pressurized, dry methanol (100°C, 10 MPa). This solubilized 27% of the fruit and 15% of the leaves. The extract was partitioned between water and methylene chloride (CH2Cl2). The amphiphilic compounds went into the CH2Cl2 phase. They accounted for 2.13% and 5.15% of the lyophilized fruit and leaves, respectively. The amino acid concentrations were also measured. NMR analysis showed that the methanolic extract contained primarily fatty acid glycosides, with smaller amounts of aromatic compounds. The NMR spectra of the amphiphilic compounds showed the presence of triglycerides in the fruit, but not the leaves. This will give regulators several ways of determining whether or not food products labeled as containing embauba are genuine. In addition, it will help regulators decide if embaúba should be classified as generally regarded as safe (GRAS). It will also help regulators decide what should be on the label for food products made from embauba.https://doi.org/10.21423/jrs-v04n04p029 (DOI assigned 5/14/2019)

Lyophilized Acmella oleracea capitula, leaves and stems were extracted with methanol at 100 degrees C and 10 MPa (100 atm) pressure in a sealed container and analyzed by LC-HRMS and NMR. This solubilized 28.3% of the leaves, 24.7% of the stems and 31.1% of the capitula. The NMR spectra were dominated by signals due to the CHO and CH2O of carbohydrates. Spilanthol and other N-alkamides were present in the methanolic extracts at concentrations that were too low to enable their detection by NMR. In contrast, LC-HRMS was able to quantify spilanthol (deca-2E,6Z,8E-trienoic acid isobutylamide, syn. affinin, C14H23NO) and detect at least ten other N-alkamides as [M+H](+) ions with the following molecular formulas and m/z values: C13H17NO (1), C17H17NO (2), C15H19NO (3), C15H21NO (4), C16H23NO (5), C17H23NO (6), C14H25NO (7), C15H25NO (8), C14H21NO (9) and C16H25NO (10). The concentrations of spilanthol in the capitula, leaves and stems were 16.5, 0.344 and 0.241 mg/g dry weight. To confirm its presence by NMR, partial purification was required. So, a portion of the residues remaining after evaporating off the methanol were partitioned between chloroform and deionized water. The percentage of amphiphilic compounds in the capitula, leaves and stems were 7.69, 8.42 and 3.09% dry weight, respectively. NMR signals due to spilanthol were seen in their spectra.

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is an essential part of human cell membranes and an important dietary source of choline, an important biochemical. Its common name is lecithin. It can be made from phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) by methylation of the ethanolamine moiety in a reaction catalyzed by phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase. There is a decrease in phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and ether-linked PC concentrations, as well as an increase in lysophosphatidylethanolamine during chronic stress. PC and choline are important for healthy brains, hearts, skeletal muscles, livers and metabolism. For example, Alzheimer's disease patients have lower concentrations of three different PCs in their blood serum than healthy control subjects. Choline is important in maintaining cell structure and synthesizing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline supplementation during critical periods of neonatal development can have long-term beneficial effects on memory. A lack of sufficient dietary choline can cause signs of subclinical organ dysfunction (fatty liver or muscle damage). The need for choline is especially high during pregnancy and lactation. If there is insufficient choline stored in the body, the ability to methylate homocysteine to make methionine decreases, and plasma concentrations of homocysteine increase. This can increase the risk for cardiovascular disease, cancer, cognitive decline and bone fractures. On the other hand, over-consumption of red meat and other dietary sources of PC can lead to the production of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) by gut bacteria. TMAO is both a kidney toxin and a biomarker for kidney diseases. So, PC and choline must be present in sufficient concentrations to support life, but not be too high to be toxic. Moreover, not everybody is equally susceptible to TMAO toxicity. People who have a kidney disease or are highly susceptible to cardiovascular disease may want to restrict their consumption of red meat and egg yolks, as well as avoid lecithin dietary supplements. Still, vegetarians who don't eat egg yolks may want to take such supplements. On the other hand, another supplement called citicoline (cytidine diphosphocholine, CDP-choline) may be a better option since it is not metabolized into TMAO and may help brain function. Citicoline supplementation may improve memory, including verbal memory in patients with age related cognitive impairment, as well as improving cognitive function in elderly patients with vascular related mild cognitive impairment.

To ensure the quality, the processing of artisanal corn meal in a production unit located in the southeastern state of São Paulo was evaluated. It handles an average of 15 tons/months, all under GMP and HACCP regulations. Of the 153 items examined on a checklist, only 42 were in compliance. In addition, the following Control Points (CPs) were identified: humidification of hominy and corn. The Critical Control Points (CCPs) were: the water, the oven, the screen that covered the humidification tank and final product. Some steps were not GMP-compliant, so corrective measures based on the CP and CCPs were suggested. One important factor was the need to comply with the specific legislation about folic acid and iron supplementation in the product. Another was the technique used to add them to the product.