Biostimulants have emerged as having the potential to sustainably enhance crop performance as well as yield quantity and nutritional quality. Although naturally rich in lysine, beans are generally deficient in sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine. Improving the nutritional imbalance in beans is highly desirable, especially in those with cultural and economic value, like Fagiolo di Sorana, a high-quality Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) bean variety from Pistoia, Italy. A spirulina-based (1 g/L and 3 g/L) and a commercially available (MC EXTRA; 1 g/L) biostimulant were applied as foliar sprays for two consecutive years to Fagiolo di Sorana plants grown under both open field and semi-controlled greenhouse conditions. Productivity was higher in treated plants: a 7% increase (p-value, 0.036) was found in whole pod weight in the first year of the trial with 3 g/L and in the second year trial (p-value, 0.020) for MC EXTRA compared to the control. Improved amino acid composition of the beans were found, specifically an increase of 200% (p-value, 0.040) and 400% (p-value, 0.053) in methionine content with 3 g/L spirulina and MC EXTRA, respectively, compared to the control, thus addressing the bean’s typical deficiency in sulfur amino acids. Bean digestibility increased 3% (p-value, 0.013) with the higher concentration (3 g/L) of the spirulina-based biostimulant relative to the control-grown plants. Molecular barcoding identified genetic differences within a collection of ten Tuscan bean landraces, including the Fagiolo di Sorana variety, thus offering a first attempt at the genetic characterization essential for preserving landrace germplasm. These genetic data were then coupled with the assessment of protein digestibility to identify differences within the landrace collection. Thus, the use of biostimulants presents an opportunity to further enhance the yield and nutritional profile of this PDO without compromising its environmental integrity.

Tetraploidy was induced using colchicine in the CBD-dominant Cannabis sativa cultivar ‘CBD Zero’ to assess the impact of ploidy change on plant desirable traits. Biometry, stem anatomy productivity, CBD and THC concentrations in the inflorescences, ionome composition of above-ground organs (i.e. stem, leaf and inflorescence) and VOC emission profile from the vegetative to the flowering phases were investigated. Tetraploids exhibited reduced stature and lower inflorescence biomass compared to diploids. These phenotypic shifts are likely a consequence of broad morphological and anatomical reorganization driven by increased genome size, as evidenced by comparative cross-sectional analyses. The tetraploid structural remodelling was characterized by a decreasing trend in stem fiber number and increased tissue thickness in both fan and sugar leaf. These observations were coupled to a distinct nutrient profile of polyploids, which showed higher concentrations of K, Fe and Ni, especially in leaves, and to their enhanced emissions of VOCs. The disparity was most pronounced towards the end of the flowering period, with the tetraploids showing a marked increase in monoterpene (e.g. p-cymene) and sesquiterpene production, compounds of considerable interest for their aromatic properties and potential health benefits. In contrast, the concentrations of the primary cannabinoids CBD and THC in dried buds showed no significant difference between ploidy levels. Some of the novel traits emerging in our induced polyploids, i.e., reduced height and increased emission of specific VOCs following leaf tissue-level changes, offer direct utility for new breeding strategies.

Climate change increasingly threatens plant productivity and ecosystem stability, highlighting the need for sustainable strategies that enhance plant resilience. The plant holobiont-comprising the plant and its associated rhizospheric microbiota-has emerged as a key functional unit governing plant performance under environmental stress. Among emerging non-invasive approaches, sound and vibration stimuli have been reported to influence plant growth, stress responses, and microbial activity; however, the physiological mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly defined. This review synthesizes current evidence on sound-induced plant and microbial responses within a holobiont framework and advances a physiology-driven conceptual model linking acoustic stimuli to root function and rhizospheric processes. We propose that sound vibrations act primarily as mechanical cues perceived by plant tissues through mechanotransduction pathways, triggering calcium and hormonal signaling that modulate root architecture, metabolism, and exudation patterns. These root-level physiological changes are hypothesized to indirectly shape rhizospheric microbial community assembly and function, thereby influencing nutrient acquisition, stress tolerance, and agronomic performance. By explicitly connecting sound perception, root functional traits, and plant-mediated microbial responses, this review moves beyond a descriptive synthesis and provides a mechanistic framework to guide future experimental research. Understanding these pathways may support the development of sound-based strategies as low-impact tools for improving plant-soil-microbe interactions in sustainable agriculture.

As global urbanization intensifies, Urban Green Spaces (UGS) are pivotal for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. However, comparative assessments of UGS spatial configuration and connectivity across diverse urban landscapes remain limited. This study aims to assess the spatial arrangement and connectivity of UGS across 28 European capital cities. Additionally, we evaluate how Network Science metrics derived from Graph Theory can complement traditional landscape ecology metrics to provide a more comprehensive understanding of UGS at a large scale. We developed a European Urban Vegetation Map using Earth observation data to classify UGS at 10 m resolution across the selected capitals. We then analyzed UGS connectivity for each city utilizing 40 traditional landscape metrics and a Graph-Theory-based approach. While traditional landscape metrics effectively quantified fragmentation, they often remain strongly correlated with total vegetation abundance. In contrast, Network Science metrics provided specific insights into UGS functional connectivity, distinguishing the quality of ecological links beyond spatial proximity. This integration allowed us to cluster European capitals into three distinct typologies: unconnected compact cities, large metropolises with complex peri-urban dynamics, and high-connectivity cities with robust networks. These findings demonstrate that graph-based indices effectively complement traditional metrics, highlighting that relying solely on green space coverage is insufficient for assessing the ecological resilience of urban environments. These results underscore the relevance of Earth observation-based UGS assessment and demonstrate that graph-based landscape connectivity analysis outperforms simple abundance metrics. Therefore, effective assessment requires integrating structural metrics with graph-based connectivity to support resilient urban biodiversity.

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), a key crop within the Fabaceae family, is one of the most widely grown and consumed legumes in the world. However, many genotypes and landraces remain understudied, including the Sorana ecotype, traditionally cultivated in Italy along the Pescia river. It is well-adapted to alluvial, sandy soils with low calcium content. To investigate its adaptive mechanisms to calcium deficiency, we grew Sorana bean plants under control (2 mM Ca2+), moderate (0.4 mM), and severe (0.2 mM) calcium deficiency conditions, from sowing to pod harvest. Both calcium-deficient conditions negatively affected plant biomass, photosynthetic pigment levels, polyphenol content, and stomatal conductance. Interestingly, moderate calcium deficiency enhanced yield, harvest index, and pod harvest index, indicating great sink strength and a shift in resource allocation. Bean skin thickness, a defining trait of this ecotype, was also influenced by calcium availability. At the molecular level, abscisic acid-related genes showed differential expression depending on calcium concentration, suggesting a threshold-dependent activation of stress-response pathways. Our results indicate that Sorana adapts to calcium-poor environments by prioritizing seed production over vegetative growth. This strategy, along with its distinctive agronomic traits, positions Sorana as a valuable genetic resource for breeding programs aimed at improving crop resilience and yield under suboptimal soil conditions.

In natural environments, plants are continuously exposed to multiple abiotic stresses, such as high salinity and excess ultraviolet (UV)-B radiation. While responses to individual stresses are well understood, less is known about their combined impact. Here, we treated quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) seedlings with salt (0 and 200 mM NaCl) under either photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) or PAR supplemented with UV-B radiation (313 nm, 1 hour/day, 1.71 W/m2) to investigate their response to combined salt and UV-B stress. While salinity had minimal effects on plant growth, it decreased stomatal conductance and photochemical efficiency by 36–47%. UV-B supplementation mitigated the negative effects of salinity, enhancing photosynthetic efficiency and water relations in UV-B- and salt-treated plants. Enhanced leaf water relations in the combined treatment were associated with altered ion translocation and shoot compartmentalization, especially for K+. Indeed, UV-B decreased K+ accumulation in epidermal bladder cells, suggesting a redistribution from epidermal bladder cells to other leaf tissues. UV-B treatment shifted plant metabolism towards producing hydroxycinnamic acid, while quercetin levels remained unchanged, indicating minimal stress. This study describes a protective mechanism in quinoa where UV-B radiation enhances ion translocation, water relations, and metabolic adjustments, mitigating salinity stress. Our findings offer key insights into plant resilience and physiological adaptation in salt-affected environments under elevated UV-B exposure.

Abiotic and biotic stresses profoundly affect global agricultural production. Climate change and escalating global temperatures are expected to increase the prevalence of these stressful conditions. The metabolism of plants is influenced by animal neurotransmitters, which play crucial roles in the regulation of responses to stress and the enhancement of stress tolerance. Among these neurotransmitter-like compounds are catecholamines, a group of biogenic amines characterized by a catechol moiety and an amine group. Dopamine is the most studied catecholamine in plants, and recent studies have demonstrated its effects on plant metabolism and development, especially in mitigating the adverse impacts of stress on plants. This review aims to examine each step in catecholamine metabolism and the effects of dopamine in plants, highlighting current knowledge of their mechanisms of action and identifying research gaps. It outlines the chemical characteristics of this group, analyzing their biosynthetic and metabolic processes.

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) sensory quality is strongly influenced by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) formed during processing, mainly through the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway during crushing and malaxation. However, the dynamic evolution of aroma compounds during extraction has never been investigated in real time. Here, PTR-ToF-MS was applied for the first time to continuously monitor VOC emissions during industrial olive oil extraction. Two cultivars, Leccino and Olivastra Seggianese, were processed at three malaxation times (20, 25, and 40 min); selected C6 aroma compounds were monitored second-by-second. Real-time monitoring revealed a unimodal emission pattern for all VOCs, with a rapid increase followed by progressive decline. Peak emissions occurred at ≈15 min (Leccino) and ≈18 min (Olivastra Seggianese). Prolonged malaxation (40 min) caused 60–75% losses of total C6 volatiles relative to peak concentrations. Olivastra Seggianese consistently showed higher VOC emissions than Leccino, likely reflecting differences in ripening stage and metabolic activity. Off-line PTR-ToF-MS confirmed these trends: shorter malaxation times preserved higher concentrations of LOX-derived compounds, particularly at m/z 81.069 and 99.080, associated with green and fruity notes. PCA discriminated oils by cultivar and malaxation time. Sensory evaluation agreed: oils from 20 and 25 min were classified as extra virgin with higher fruity intensity, whereas prolonged malaxation reduced sensory quality and produced fusty defects. Overall, PTR-ToF-MS provides a real-time tool to monitor aroma evolution and identify optimal malaxation conditions. Its implementation in olive mills could support dynamic process control, preserve cultivar-specific aroma, and improve quality and commercial value of premium EVOO.

Italian olive growing is undergoing significant changes due to climate change, with potential implications for extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) quality. This study analyzes long-term variations in the fatty acid composition of Italian monovarietal oils by linking chemical data with climatic conditions of the production seasons. A database of 1564 oil samples collected between 1983 and 2023 was compiled from scientific publications and institutional archives. Samples were modelled against Growing Degree Days (GDD), the selected climate proxy, and year, accounting for cultivar and geographic origin. Results indicate emerging trends in fatty acid composition, including a reduction in oleic acid in some cultivars and a relative increase in palmitic and linoleic acids, potentially linked to rising temperatures. However, these changes are small: fatty acid proportions remain within narrow ranges and within International Olive Council (IOC) limits, indicating that although statistically significant, they are not practically relevant to EVOO quality or oxidative stability. Cultivars previously identified as more sensitive to climate variability showed distinct response patterns, with different compensatory mechanisms linked to the decline in oleic acid. This study provides a robust dataset for future research into the climate-EVOO quality relationship, deepening understanding of environmental influences on the olive oil supply chain.

Mimosa pudica is a plant known for its ability to fold leaves in response to mechanical disturbances, which serves as a visible phenotypic stress marker. Leaf folding occurs with a response timing and intensity that varies depending on the stimulus. This adaptive behavior may function as a defense mechanism, helping plant resist herbivores and environmental stressors. However, the molecular and genetic mechanisms that are involved in leaf folding are still not totally understood. In this study, the gene regulatory networks underlying M. pudica leaf closure following single and multiple mechanical disturbances (whole pot drops) were investigated. Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured as fast phenotypic indicator of transient or permanent photochemical damage, and transcriptional responses were measured to identify the key genes regulating phenotypic changes after single or multiple drops. A progressive reduction of the quantum yield of photosystem 2 revealed a lower electron transport rate in leaves subjected to one or more drops, which may indicate the onset of energy shortage, perhaps caused by low ATP availability, limiting both leaf movement and photosynthesis. The transcriptomic profiles revealed larger differences when plants were subjected to multiple drops than to a single drop, with respect to unstressed controls. Interestingly, following a single drop, the majority of up-regulated genes were associated with the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. After multiple drops, however, genes associated with biotic and abiotic stress resistance pathways were predominantly up-regulated. These results provide a basis for developing a gene regulatory network model of stress-induced movements in M. pudica leaves, which may help design sustainable strategies of plant stress defense. Main Conclusions Repeated stress in Mimosa pudica reduces photosystem efficiency, alters gene expression, shifting from flavonoid biosynthesis to stress resistance pathways, offering insights for sustainable plant stress defense strategies. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. ministero della ricerca e dell'università, Fore-VOC (PRIN 2022 PNRR), LEGU-MED (PRIMA 2019)

Solving the complexities of coffee aroma is vital for the industry, especially since different growing regions produce distinct coffee volatile profiles which are influenced by variations in several factors such as climate, soil, and cultivation practices. Discriminating these profiles enables the authentication of coffee origin, helping protect consumers and producers. In this study, the Self-Organizing Map (SOM) was employed to analyze the volatile profile of high-quality coffee from various geographical regions, including Honduras, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Brazil. The volatile profile of 311 Coffee arabica “specialty” samples was obtained using a Proton Transfer Reaction-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS). Subsequently, by employing a SOM technique, coupled with classifier neural networks, the research focuses on discerning geographical origins, resulting in a two-dimensional map that enhances data visualization and interpretation. This approach also identified which volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play a significant role in identifying different origins across the map. The results demonstrated that samples from Honduras, Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Guatemala were uniformly grouped in specific areas whilst samples from El Salvador and Brazil exhibited more fragmented distributions. This analysis contributes valuable insights into understanding flavor complexities of high-quality coffee, ensuring origin authentication and valorization.

Rice is one of the most important cereal crops worldwide. To boost its production in a sustainable manner, co-cultivation with Azolla species is often used to supplement its nitrogen (N) demands. However, beyond N nutrition, the physiological and developmental effects of azolla on rice remain unclear. This study investigates these mechanisms by analysing growth, inflorescence meristem transcriptomics, yield, and grain ionomics in rice plants grown alone (R) or with azolla (R + A) in non-limiting N conditions. During the vegetative stage, the presence of azolla increased allocation of resources to rice shoots without affecting root growth, while in the reproductive stage, it improved panicle architecture, with a 6% increase in length and up to 26% increase in panicle branching. Nevertheless, while this increase in panicle branching in R + A translated into a greater number of grains per plant, grain weight declined. As a result, yields were similar between R and R + A. There was also an azolla-induced increment in several mineral elements in R + A grains, with the notable exception of zinc, which declined by more than 30%. Finally, the presence of azolla altered the expression of several gene families, and in particular, it led to the upregulation of numerous transcription factors from the AP2/ERF, WRKY and NAM families. Interestingly, the presence of azolla also led to the upregulation of several genes (including WRKY transcription factors) involved in resistance to several pathogens and abiotic stresses. Overall, our results suggest that rice-azolla co-cultivation has implications that go beyond N-nutrition for sustainable intensification of rice production.

Repeated stress in Mimosa pudica reduces photosystem efficiency, alters gene expression, shifting from flavonoid biosynthesis to stress resistance pathways, offering insights for sustainable plant stress defense strategies. Mimosa pudica is a plant known for its ability to fold leaves in response to mechanical disturbances, which serves as a visible phenotypic stress marker. Leaf folding response occurs with a timing and an intensity that vary depending on the stimulus. This adaptive behavior may function as a defense mechanism, helping plant resist herbivores and environmental stressors. In this study, we investigated the gene regulatory networks underlying M. pudica leaf closure following single and multiple mechanical disturbances (whole pot drops). Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured as fast phenotypic indicator of transient or permanent photochemical damage, and transcriptional responses were measured to identify the key genes regulating phenotypic changes after single or multiple drops. A progressive reduction of the quantum yield of PSII revealed a lower electron transport rate in leaves subjected to one or more drops, which may indicate the onset of energy shortage, potentially caused by limited ATP availability that constrains both leaf movement and photosynthesis. The transcriptomic profiles revealed larger differences when plants were subjected to multiple drops than to a single drop, with respect to unstressed controls. Interestingly, following a single drop, the majority of up-regulated genes were associated with the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. After multiple drops, however, genes associated with biotic and abiotic stress resistance pathways were predominantly up-regulated. These findings provide new insights into the gene regulatory networks driving stress-induced movements in M. pudica leaves and lay the groundwork for developing sustainable strategies for plant stress defense.

Due to the globalization of coffee trade, ensuring the safety and traceability of coffee has become a critical challenge, prompting global authorities to implement new traceability systems to enhance quality identification and protect consumers from fraud. Aroma is a crucial parameter in the evaluation and differentiation of coffees, influenced by factors such as genetics, origin, post harvesting process, roast level, and brewing method. This paper provides, for the first time, a comprehensive overview of the volatile fingerprints of specialty coffees, categorized by their respective quality levels. In particular, this study aimed to evaluate the potential of volatile compounds monitored through Proton Transfer Reaction-Time of Flight-Mass Spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) as objective, fast, reliable and repeatable tool for tracking the quality and genetic lineage of Arabica specialty coffees. The spectra of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were acquired from 1132 coffee samples (both specialty and non-specialty) from various varieties, origins, and processing methods. Results clearly indicate that the volatile composition of specialty coffee is predominantly influenced by its genetic lineage. Arabica coffee species belonging to Bourbon, Typica, and Ethiopian landraces showed higher total VOCs emission, while varieties related to Robusta, which are related to the Canephora one, emit less. Finally, by employing a complex network analysis approach based on headspace VOC analysis, it was possible to accurately distinguish between different categories of specialty Arabica coffee. Notably, our analysis shows that the quality of specialty coffee is not linked to the number of VOCs emitted, but rather to the level emission of some pleasant aroma compounds. These findings open new perspectives for the development of aroma profiling techniques and demonstrate the unique aroma release characteristics of specialty coffees.

Closely related FKBP orthologs, FKBP42/TWISTED DWARF1 (TWD1) and FKBP38, have been shown to control the biogenesis of plant and mammalian ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, respectively. However, the mechanistic role of the described FKBP-ABCB interaction is widely unknown. Here, we verify cytosolic HEAT-SHOCK PROTEIN90 (HSP90) isoforms as valid interactors of TWD1 and map HSP90 binding to an amphiphilic alpha-helix preceding its TPR domain. We provide pharmacological and genetic evidence that a subset of TWD1-interacting ABCBs, in contrast to mammalian ABCBs, are constitutive HSP90 clients in plants. This effect and its specificity are presumably provided by TWD1. Our data strongly correlate the impact of HSP90 inhibition on ABCB-mediated development and ABCB plasma membrane stability on the one hand and ABCB cycling rate on the other. In summary, we uncover a dynamic mechanism of HSP90 for differential stabilization of the plasma membrane ABCB isoforms to regulate polar auxin transport and to confer developmental plasticity.

This discussion paper carefully analyzes the cognition-related theories proposed for behavioral economics, to expand the concepts from human behaviors to those of plants. Behavioral economists analyze the roles of the intuitive sense and the rational thoughts affecting the human behavior, by employing the psychology-based models such as Two Minds theory (TMT) highlighting intuitive rapid thoughts (System 1) and rational slower thoughts (System 2) and Prospect theory (PT) with probability (p)-weighting functions explaining the human tendencies to overrate the low p events and to underrate the high p events. There are similarities between non-consciously processed System 1 (of TMT) and overweighing of low-p events (as in PT) and also, between the consciously processed System 2 (of TMT) and underrating of high-p events (as in PT). While most known p-weighting mathematical models employed single functions, we propose a pair of Hill-type functions reflecting the collective behaviors of two types of automata corresponding to intuition (System 1) and rationality (System 2), as a metaphor to the natural light processing in layered plant leaves. Then, the model was applied to two different TMT/PT-related behaviors, namely, preference reversal and habituation. Furthermore, we highlight the behaviors of plants through the above conceptual frameworks implying that plants behave as if they have Two Minds. Lastly, the possible evolutionary origins of the nature of Two Minds are discussed.

Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea, var. europaea, plays a crucial role in cultural identity and economic prosperity across many regions of the Mediterranean Basin. The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, represents a major global challenge to olive and olive oil production. Its larvae feed exclusively on olive fruits, causing severe crop damage and substantial economic losses. In this study, we examined four olive cultivars differing in susceptibility to B. oleae, focusing on fruit morphology (weight, maturity index, penetration resistance), cuticle characteristics, and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. Confocal microscopy with Nile Red staining was used to analyze cuticle structure, while VOCs were measured using proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS). Thicker cuticles were associated with reduced infestation, suggesting a mechanical barrier function against oviposition or larval penetration. PTR-ToF-MS analysis revealed cultivar- and ripening stage–specific VOC emission patterns, with certain compounds potentially acting as deterrents or attractants to the olive fly. These results indicate that fruit morphology, cuticle development, and VOC profiles act as interdependent determinants of cultivar-specific tolerance to B. oleae. The integration of these physical and chemical traits provides valuable markers for breeding programs and contributes to the development of sustainable, integrated pest management strategies in olive cultivation.

BACKGROUND:Climate change and population growth are major challenges for sustainable food production, particularly in regions affected by water scarcity and soil salinization. In this context, halophytes represent promising candidates as alternative and sustainable food crops for salt-affected areas. RESULTS:The results of an experiment evaluating the salt responses and nutritional values of the edible halophyte Tetragonia tetragonioides grown at three salinity levels (0, 100, and 200 mmol L-1 NaCl) in two soils with different textures revealed similar growth parameters under control and 100 mmol L-1 NaCl conditions in both soils. Conversely, the 200 mmol L-1 NaCl treatment negatively affected plant growth, with plants grown in Soil A + S consistently outperforming those grown in Soil A. At moderate salinity (100 mmol L-1 NaCl), water productivity increased, driven by lower stomatal conductance and transpiration rates. Moreover, mineral analysis of edible leaves revealed a progressive accumulation of Na and Cl with increasing salinity, especially in Soil A-grown plants. On the other hand, salt-grown plants had higher leaf Cu, Zn and Mn concentrations, key micronutrients often lacking in human diets. Furthermore, soils sampled near plant roots showed lower electrical conductivity (EC) compared to distant soil samples, confirming a phytodesalination effect by T. tetragonioides. CONCLUSION:The obtained results indicate that T. tetragonioides can be successfully cultivated in moderately saline soils (EC < 20 dS m-1), providing dual benefits: production of mineral-enriched edible biomass and partial remediation of salt-affected soils. This dual role highlights its potential as a valuable crop for sustainable agriculture in marginal saline environments. © 2025 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Urban green areas play a crucial role in supporting the provision of ecosystem services, and are pivotal in urban landscape planning and in enhancing the ecological connectivity of cities. However, urban sprawl poses challenges to urban vegetation connectivity and biodiversity, being one of the main causes of landscape fragmentation and degradation. Our paper aimed to introduce a standardized and comparable approach for evaluating the connectivity of green urban areas across Europe. The goal was to evaluate the landscape connectivity of urban areas in 28 European Capital cities and to establish rankings based on two key criteria: the percentage of vegetation and overall landscape connectivity. First, we implemented data from the European Union Earth Observation program—Copernicus—to construct the European Urban Vegetation Maps (EUVMs). EUVMs referred to 2018, had a spatial resolution of 10 m, and categorized dominant vegetation cover into trees, shrubs, and grass across 28 European Capital cities at two official geographical levels: Local Administrative Unit (LAU) and Urban Core areas (UC). Based on the EUVMs, the percentage of vegetation was calculated per each Capital city in Europe. The accuracy assessment against field surveys conducted under the Land Use and Coverage Area Frame Survey confirmed the EUVMs’ potential, with an overall accuracy of 83.57

Plastids are highly diverse organelles that play critical roles in supporting many forms of life on Earth. Among them, chloroplasts house the machinery for photosynthesis, providing phototrophic capabilities to eukaryotes such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic protists. The functions of plastids are indispensable for the survival and development of life, and they are widely recognized as endosymbiotic organelles with a single origin. They exhibit morphological diversity, tissue specificity, and the ability to adapt to specific cellular functions. Despite this level of understanding, significant questions remain unanswered, such as how genetic material from the endosymbiont was transferred and integrated into the host nucleus, the timeline for the full integration of the endosymbiont into the host cell, and the processes by which plastids specialized and adapted to various cell types. While plastids have unique features and specialized roles, they are neither autonomous nor physically isolated. Instead, they interact with other sub-cellular compartments through yet-to-be-characterized membrane domains or specialized structures. This review explores the origin and evolution of plastids, their protein-import machinery, compartmentalization, and interactions with other cellular compartments, and highlights key unanswered questions in these areas.