Research has indicated that the reinforcing properties of certain foods may drive excess energy intake and obesity risk. However, scientifically our understanding of what characteristics may modulate the reinforcing properties of such foods is limited. The study focused on foods with combinations of nutrients (sodium + fat or starchy carbohydrates) at moderate to high levels, termed hyper-palatable foods (HPF), which are hypothesized to be strong reinforcers. A randomized experiment using an online crowdsourced sample was conducted to examine whether sodium may modulate the reinforcing properties of HPF. A secondary aim examined whether ultra-processed food (UPF) status contributed to the reinforcing properties of food stimuli. Adults (N = 339) recruited online via Prolific were randomized to 1 of 2 study arms and presented with: 1) HPF-UPF (HPF that were also ultra-processed) (n = 5); or 2) HPF-only stimuli (n = 5). Comparator stimuli (n = 5) for both arms were matched food items without sodium. Participants completed visual analogue scale ratings of acute subjective effects and behavioral tasks assessing the reinforcing properties of HPF/HPF-UPF items vs matched items without sodium. There were significant differences between the HPF/HPF-UPF and matched items without sodium on all subjective effects (liking, wanting, etc; p-values <.001; ηp2 = .34-.68), on demand elasticity (sensitivity to increasing prices) in a food purchase task (p < .001, ηp2 = .16), and steeper discounting of delayed HPF/HPF-UPF rewards in a behavioral task (p values < .001, ηp2 = .19-.37). Findings provide preliminary evidence suggesting HPF may have strong reinforcing properties that may be modulated via sodium.

Hyper-palatable foods (HPF) contain pairs of ingredients (e.g., fat and sodium) at thresholds not found in nature. The ingredient pairs in hyper-palatable foods are hypothesized to drive their reinforcing properties; however, this premise has not been tested using abuse liability assessment methodology. This proof-of-concept pilot used an acute dose-effects paradigm to evaluate the reinforcing effects of full-dose hyper-palatable foods (potato chips) versus negative control and modified-dose stimuli. This within-subjects, double-blind, crossover-design study was conducted with N = 20 participants in a laboratory setting. Food stimuli consisted of regular potato chips; a negative control low in fat, sodium, and carbohydrates (Jicama vegetable chip, baked); and modified-dose potato chips (either no fat or no sodium). In each of four sessions, participants completed an acute subjective effects test, a food purchase task to evaluate demand elasticity for each chip condition (sensitivity to escalating prices), and a self-administration task, which characterized break point, the highest level at which participants worked to self-administer chips with escalating response requirements. Full-dose chips were rated significantly higher on liking, wanting, craving, and willingness to eat again, versus negative control (p = .011-.0001). Participants exhibited lower demand elasticity for the full-dose chips (p < .0001), and higher break point (p < .0001), suggesting they valued full-dose chips more as reinforcers versus negative control. A similar pattern was observed for the modified-dose chips versus negative control, with smaller differences. Findings overall indicated dose-response effects across the stimuli, supporting the premise that abuse liability assessment methodology can be applied to test the addictive properties of hyper-palatable foods. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Hyperpalatable foods containing hedonically reinforcing combinations of fat, sugar, carbohydrates, and sodium have increased in prevalence in modern food systems. These foods, containing nutrient combinations rarely found in nature, strongly activate neural reward circuits and may exacerbate vulnerability to binge-eating behaviors. The present review synthesized five decades (1973–2023) of empirical research to characterize the consumption of hyperpalatable foods during binge-eating episodes and identify which hyperpalatable groups (Fat-and-Sugar, Fat-and-Sodium, or Carbohydrate-and-Sodium) predominate. After exclusions, 37 eligible studies were identified that reported foods consumed during binge-eating episodes in sufficient detail for hyperpalatability analyses. Nutritional information for 158 food items was extracted from national food composition databases and analyzed using established hyperpalatability criteria. Study characteristics were also summarized. Results indicated that hyperpalatable foods overwhelmingly dominated binge-eating episodes. Across studies, 100

Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) can capture the dynamic nature of food craving in free-living conditions, addressing limitations of laboratory and retrospective reporting methods. This systematic review synthesized findings from EMA studies to characterize 1) methodological features, 2) the temporal dynamics of food craving, and 3) the relationship between craving and eating behaviors. A systematic search of PubMed and PsycINFO databases was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. The review included 23 studies that utilized EMA designs to assess food craving repeatedly in daily life among healthy adults. Most studies employed EMA protocols that prompted participants to respond at pre-specified time points and utilized single-item craving measures. Most craving measures (71%) lacked specificity regarding the type of food craved. Results revealed a consistent positive within-person association between hunger and food craving. Conversely, associations between stress/negative affect and craving were inconsistent, varying by individual traits and context. Momentary food craving appeared to predict subsequent eating outcomes. Evidence suggested food craving may be a dynamic, transient state that co-fluctuates with hunger, functioning as a proximal antecedent to food intake. However, reliance on non-specific food craving measures and EMA protocols prompting at fixed schedules limits the granular understanding of craving mechanisms. Future research requires refining food craving measurement and incorporating randomized prompting within predefined windows, or participant-initiated sampling triggered by specific events (e.g., eating occasion), to better characterize food craving dynamics in relation to eating behaviors.

OBJECTIVE:Over the past 60 years, the proportion of highly processed foods rich in refined carbohydrates and added fats in the food environment has increased, coinciding with a rise in binge eating. While past research has focused on individual vulnerabilities for binge eating, emerging evidence suggests highly processed foods may exacerbate these vulnerabilities. This Research Forum addresses a critical research gap by synthesizing the foods reported in binge-eating episodes across 41 studies and identifying limitations in current food-reporting practices. METHOD:Systematic searches were conducted in PubMed, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO through February 2025. Eligible studies reported specific foods consumed during binge-eating episodes among human participants. Foods were coded as highly processed based on the presence of refined carbohydrates and/or added fats. RESULTS:All 41 (100%) eligible studies reported at least one highly processed food in binge-eating episodes. Only 31.7% of studies (n = 13) reported minimally processed food consumption in a binge-eating episode. Of the food types reported across all studies (n = 404), 70.3% were classified as highly processed and 14.9% as minimally processed. However, vague food descriptions limited the ability to categorize many foods. The most frequently reported foods were cake, ice cream, cookies, and chocolate. DISCUSSION:Across published studies, highly processed foods were highly prevalent in binge-eating episodes, but interpretations are constrained by vague and incomplete food reporting. We outline recommendations for standardized food-reporting practices to improve the characterization of foods reported in binge-eating occasions to strengthen the clinical relevance of future research.

OBJECTIVE:Hyper-palatable foods (HPF) have strong reinforcing properties, and their presence in food stores may skew purchasing towards HPF, even when healthier foods are available. However, the availability of HPF in US food stores is unknown. The study aims were to (1) quantify the prevalence of HPF in US stores; (2) characterise US household expenditures on HPF per shopping occasion and (3) examine demographic and health characteristics associated with HPF purchasing. DESIGN:Proprietary scanner data representing (1) foods available and sold in US food stores and (2) foods purchased during US household shopping occasions were analysed across 4 years (2015-2018). SETTING:N/a. PARTICIPANTS:US food stores (> 34900 per year) provided weekly data on all foods/beverages available and sold. Samples of US households (> 45000 per year) used scanners to report all food/beverage purchases during their shopping occasions. RESULTS:Across years, HPF comprised over two-thirds of foods available per store (M = 67·1 %; sd = 6·9) and of weekly sales (M = 70·4 %; sd = 9·0). HPF comprised the majority of foods purchased by households (M = 59·4 %; sd = 34·6) and on average accounted 60·3 % of household food expenditures (sd = 35·7) per shopping occasion. Health risk characteristics including self-reported type 2 diabetes diagnosis and self-reported obesity diagnosis were associated with significantly higher proportionate expenditures on HPF, relative to those without such diagnoses (beta values = 1·412-1·584; P values < 0·0001). CONCLUSIONS:HPF comprised > 65 % of available foods in US food outlets. Household purchasing of HPF during shopping occasions closely paralleled HPF availability in stores.

Objectives. To identify nutritional characteristics associated with the perceived addictive potential of commonly consumed foods in the US food supply, the majority of which are ultraprocessed foods (UPFs). Methods. In a demographically diverse sample of US adults (n = 1664; 55.2% female), participants rated the perceived addictiveness of 297 commonly consumed foods (74.4% UPFs). Data were collected through Prolific in June 2024. Machine-learning models identified nutritional predictors of addictiveness using both the 15 variables required on US Nutrition Facts labels and an expanded set of 166 nutrient characteristics from the Nutrition Data System for Research. Results. Models performed comparably and revealed consistent nonlinear associations between nutrient content and perceived addictiveness. Foods higher in carbohydrates, glycemic load, energy density, and fat were rated as more addictive. These nutrient profiles were rare in minimally processed foods but common in UPFs, which frequently exceeded multiple addictive nutrient thresholds simultaneously. Conclusions. This study identifies a nutritional signature linked to perceived addictive potential. Findings provide a data-driven framework for identifying foods most likely to promote compulsive intake and inform policies aimed at creating a healthier, less addictive food environment. (Am J Public Health. 2026;116(7):950-959. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2026.308500).

We sought to characterize the involvement of US tobacco companies in the global food industry, where they disseminated ultraprocessed and hyper-palatable foods, and the methods they used to expand globally. We reviewed and extracted data from 113 primary source industry documents. US tobacco companies developed billion-dollar food businesses that were prominent internationally between the 1980s and mid-2000s. Tobacco companies developed their international food businesses with the same strategies they used to establish their international tobacco businesses. Our findings suggest that US tobacco companies used their extensive experiences from their tobacco businesses to maximize the successes of their international food businesses in disseminating ultra-processed foods globally. Regulation of the multiple addictive products that tobacco companies have disseminated to markets globally may be needed to protect public health. (Am J Public Health. 2026;116(7):921-931. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2026.308501).

Hyper-palatable foods (HPF), characterized by specific nutrient combinations at moderate to high levels (e.g., fat and sodium), have been suggested to increase energy intake and obesity risk due to their strong reinforcing properties. The study examined patterns in HPF availability, nutrient characteristics, and overlap with ultra-processed foods (UPF) across countries from a globally crowdsourced, open-source dataset. Food data (N = 314229 food items) from 17 countries were analyzed. Compared to the US, foods from most European countries examined, as well as Canada and Mexico, were significantly less likely to be identified as HPF (ORs = 0.70 to 0.93) and had lower % of calories from fat, sugar, starchy carbohydrates, and sodium compared to HPF items from the US (ORs = 0.76 to 0.98). Across countries, items identified as HPF substantially exceeded HPF threshold criteria by 70-229%. Foods identified as being both HPF and ultra-processed foods ranged from 33% (Bulgaria) to 50% (US). Overall, findings from 17 countries across Europe, North America, and South America highlighted foods from the US as being more likely to be hyper-palatable relative to most other countries examined. Results highlighted variability in the degree to which foods met criteria as HFP and UPF across countries.

Background: High delay discounting (DD), or the tendency to prefer immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards, has been associated with health risk behaviors. This study examined the DD of hyper-palatable foods (HPFs) and money, and their associations with eating motives and binge eating behavior. Methods: An adult sample (N = 296) completed a DD task with single- and cross-commodity conditions with rewards of money and/or HPF (e.g., HPF now vs. HPF later; HPF now vs. money later). Regression models tested the association between DD, and eating motives and binge eating. Results: DD in the HPF now vs. money later condition was positively associated with the reward enhancement motive (β = 0.291; p = 0.008) and binge eating behavior (β = 0.041; p = 0.017). There were no other significant associations. Conclusions: Decisional impulsivity specific to HPFs (and not decisional impulsivity in general) may be associated with reward-motivated eating and binge eating behavior.

Added sugar consumption is contraindicated for infants < 2 years old; however added sugars are present in many US infant formulas. We examined whether US formulas contain primarily added sugars, or whether formulas contain primarily naturally occurring lactose (the sugar in human milk). Data were obtained from the Nutrition Data System for Research and included formulas available on the US market in 2022 (N = 73). Formulas were categorized as: standard (n = 31), gentle (n = 27), and lactose-free (n = 15). Differences across formulas were examined using Bayesian modeling. The median percent added sugars were high in standard (M=59.7 %; IQR=22.0), gentle (M=85.0 %; IQR=39.5), and lactose-free formulas (M=90.0 %; IQR=54.3). Gentle formulas had significantly lower proportional lactose (OR=0.22, 95 % HDI=[0.11,0.44], pd=99.3 %) and > 2 fold higher proportional added sugars compared to standard formulas (ORs=2.11-2.57, HDI>0, pd=99.1-99.99 %). Lactose-free formulas had 4-8 times higher proportional sucrose (OR=8.92, HDI=[3.86,20.8], pd=100 %) and maltose (OR=4.91, HDI=[2.51,9.56], pd=100 %) relative to standard and gentle formulas. Five formulas contained primarily (70-90 %) naturally occurring lactose. In conclusion, most US infant formulas contain primarily added sugars. However, the presence of five formulas containing primarily naturally occurring lactose demonstrates that such formulations are feasible to produce; such formulas should be made more widely available to help promote infant health.

BackgroundFood craving plays a significant role in food choice and excess energy intake. While prior research has predominantly examined food craving as a general construct (e.g., craving for foods overall), this approach may obscure important variability in craving for specific foods. The current study aimed to address this limitation by examining craving for specific foods (food-item level) and examining differences across sex in food item craving, while controlling for overall food craving.MethodsThe sample (N = 583) was collected via crowdsourcing. The Food Craving Inventory was used to assess craving for 28 food items. Using item response theory (IRT), a partial credit model was employed to investigate which food item was easier or more commonly craved, while holding overall food craving level constant across participants. Differential item functioning (DIF) analysis identified sex differences in craving for specific food items, with effect sizes calculated to interpret the magnitude of DIF.ResultsThe partial credit model revealed that pizza and chocolate were the easiest or most commonly craved, while gravy and cornbread were the most difficult to crave. DIF analysis suggested that savory items were more difficult (or less commonly) craved among females with medium effect sizes (i.e., Cohen's D) ranging from 0.53 to 0.80, whereas sweets were more difficult for males to crave, with effect sizes ranging from 0.42 to 0.49.ConclusionFindings indicated that food craving may vary depending on specific foods and sex.

Objective Hyper-palatable foods (HPF) contain nutrient combinations that are hypothesized to maximize their rewarding effects during consumption. Due to their strong reinforcing properties, HPF are hypothesized to lead to greater energy intake within a meal. However, this premise has not been tested in free-living conditions. The current study examined the association between within-meal HPF intake and 1) measured energy intake and 2) self-reported overeating, assessed within eating occasions using smartphone-based food photography methodology. Methods A total of 29 participants reported food intake and eating experiences (N=345 total eating occasions) in real-time for 4 days using smartphone-based food photography methodology. HPF were identified using a standardized definition. Bayesian multilevel modeling was conducted to investigate the within-person effects of proportional calorie intake from HPF (%kcal from HPF) on total energy intake and subjective overeating. Pre-meal hunger and proportional energy intake from high energy dense (HED) foods were included as covariates. Results Results revealed that when participants consumed more %kcal from HPF than their average, they consumed greater total energy during eating occasions, even when controlling for pre-meal hunger and %kcal from HED foods (median β = 0.09, 95% HDI [0.02, 0.16], pd. = 99.56%). Additionally, consuming more %kcal from HPF than average was associated with greater eating despite feeling full, when controlling covariates (median β = 0.15, 95% HDI [-0.02, 0.34], pd = 96.45%). Conclusions The findings supported the premise that HPF themselves may yield greater energy intake and eating despite satiation, measured in real-time and free-living conditions.

Objective: Food taxation can improve diets by making unhealthy foods more expensive and by making healthy foods cheaper. In the Netherlands, a political window of opportunity arose in December 2021 to reduce the value-added tax (VAT) on fruits and vegetables to zero percent. The policy is now facing institutional friction along several fronts, however, delaying and potentially averting its implementation. We analysed this institutional friction to inform future food tax policies. Design: We qualitatively analysed open-access fiscal and health experts’ position papers about benefits and downsides of the zero-rate that were discussed with members of parliament in June 2023. Setting: The Netherlands. Participants: Not applicable. Results: Health and fiscal experts expressed noticeably different viewpoints towards the utility of the zero-rate. One important argument fiscal experts based their negative advice upon pertained to the legal restrictions for distinguishing between healthier and unhealthier forms of fruits and vegetables (i.e. the principle of neutrality). A zero-rate VAT on unhealthier forms of fruits and vegetables, e.g. processed cucumber, mixed with salt and sugar, would be undesirable, but differentiating between raw and processed cucumber would offend the neutrality principle. Conclusions: The Dutch attempt to give fruits and vegetables a tax break highlights the need for crystal-clear food classifications when designing food tax policies. Public health nutritionists should combine classifications based on caloric density, palatability, degree of processing and nutrient content to provide a database for evidence-informed tax differentiation according to food item healthfulness.

Objective: Ultraprocessed foods (UPF), hyper-palatable foods (HPF), and high energy density (HED) foods may contribute to obesity risk. All have distinct definitions; however, it is unknown the degree to which they may identify overlapping or distinct foods. This study examined the availability of UPF, HPF, and HED foods in the US food system from 1988 to 2018 and the degree of distinction across definitions.Methods: Four data sets representing the US food system (1988, 2001, 2006, 2018) from the US Department of Agriculture were analyzed. UPF were identified based on the extent of industrialized processing. HPF were identified using the standardized definition that specifies palatability-inducing nutrient combinations. HED was characterized as >2.0 kcal/g.Results: Across years, 58% to 65% of foods were classified as UPF, 55% to 69% as HPF, and 37% to 47% as HED. Prevalence of UPF, HPF, and HED foods was higher in 2018 versus 1988 (p values < 0.001); HPF evidenced the largest increase (14%) and UPF evidenced the smallest (4%) over time. There was moderate to high overlap in foods (40%-70%) across definitions.Conclusions: Together, UPF, HPF, and HED foods comprise most foods in the US food supply. Changes in availability varied across definitions, with substantial increases in HPF and HED and relative stability of UPF.

Introduction: The prevalence of food addiction among patients seeking bariatric surgery is approximately 30 %. While hyper-palatable foods (HPF) have been identified as the potential 'substance' in food addiction and a contributor to severe obesity, consumption of HPF among individuals with food addiction, including those seeking bariatric surgery, is unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the consumption of HPF among individuals seeking bariatric surgery with food addiction, compared to those without food addiction. Methods: Participants were N = 54 individuals with severe obesity seeking bariatric surgery. The Yale Food Addiction Scale was used to identify individuals with food addiction (FA) (37 % of sample). Dietary recalls were used to quantify HPF intake. Analyses were conducted to characterize average HPF intake and to determine whether there were significant differences between HPF intake among those with FA compared to those without FA, and whether HFP intake was correlated with FA symptoms. Results: On average, 71 % of participants' daily calorie intake was from HPF. There were no significant differences in HPF items intake among individuals with and without FA (70.46 % vs 71.34; p = 0.85). A positive correlation between number of FA symptoms and the intake of HPF high in fat and sugar ([0.3]; p = 0.03) was observed. Conclusion: In this pilot study, HPF consumption among individuals with and without FA seeking bariatric surgery was high overall, however there were no differences across groups. In addition, intake of HPF with fat and sugar was associated with the number of symptoms of food addiction. More studies with a larger sample are needed to confirm these preliminary findings.

Research supports the premise that greater substance use is associated with fewer sources of environmental reinforcement. However, it remains unclear whether types of environmental reinforcement (e.g., social or work) may differentially influence use. This study tested the association between types of environmental reinforcement and engagement in multiple health risk behaviors (alcohol use, binge eating, and nicotine use). Cross-sectional data were collected from a general population sample of US adults (N = 596). The Pleasant Events Schedule (PES) was used to measure sources of reinforcement. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) characterized different areas of environmental reinforcement and correlations with alcohol consumption, binge eating, and nicotine use. A four-factor structure of the PES demonstrated a conceptually cohesive model with acceptable fit and partial strict invariance. Social-related reinforcement was positively associated with alcohol consumption (β = 0.30, p < 0.001) and binge eating (β = 0.26, p < 0.001). Work/school-related reinforcement was negatively associated with binge eating (β = −0.14, p = 0.006). No areas of reinforcement were significantly associated with nicotine use (p values = 0.069 to 0.755). Social-related activities may be associated with engagement in multiple health risk behaviors (more binge eating and alcohol use), whereas work/school-related activities may be preventative against binge eating. Understanding these relationships can inform prevention efforts targeting health risk behaviors.

BackgroundMulti-national food corporations may saturate country-level food systems with hyper-palatable foods. However, the degree to which global food corporations have been integrated into country-level food systems may vary. Italy has largely retained local food production and may have low hyper-palatable food (HPF) availability in the food supply. The study quantified the prevalence of HPF in the Italian food system and compared the hyper-palatability of similar foods across Italy and the United States, which has wide HPF saturation.MethodsA national food system dataset was used to characterize HPF availability in Italy. A representative sample of foods commonly consumed in both Italy and the US were collected and compared. Foods represented six categories: cookies/biscotti, cakes/merendine, salty snacks, industrial bread, frozen pizza and protein/cereal bars. A standardized definition from Fazzino et al. identified HPF.ResultsLess than one third (28.8%) of foods in the Italian food system were hyper-palatable. US HPF items had significantly higher fat, sugar, and/or sodium across most food categories (p values = 0.001 to 0.0001). Italian HPF items had higher fiber and/or protein relative to US HPF from the same category (p values = 0.01 to 0.0001).ConclusionThe Italian food system may confer protection from HPF exposure. HPF products in Italy had lower palatability-related nutrients and higher satiety-promoting nutrients.

Introduction College campuses provide an expansive food environment, which may contribute to elevated risk of excess energy intake and weight gain among college students. All-you-can-eat style cafeterias often expose students to hyper-palatable foods (HPF), which may promote overeating. This study aimed to examine the availability of HPF in an all-you-can-eat college cafeteria, and to examine HPF intake during meals among undergraduates. Method Publicly available cafeteria menu data from a Midwestern university were analyzed and included 25 meals. To determine the availability of HPF within the cafeteria meals, the standardized definition of HPF by Fazzino et al. (2019) was used, which specifies combinations of palatability-inducing nutrients at quantitative thresholds that may induce hyper-palatability. Participants (N = 225) who ate in the cafeteria in the past 24 h were presented with a list of all menu items for their corresponding cafeteria meal, and self-reported all items consumed. Results On average, 40 % (SD = 1.4) of total food items available per meal were HPF, with 68 % (SD = 3.6) of items with elevated fat and sodium. Regarding intake of HPF among students, approximately 64 % (SD = 31.4) of foods consumed were HPF, and 51 % (SD = 32.3) of items consumed had elevated fat and sodium. Conclusion Findings indicated that college students may be regularly exposed to HPF in all-you-can-eat college cafeteria environments, and that students may consume cafeteria meals that are primarily comprised of HPF.