Science and social studies have much to offer to all learners-including those with disabilities.However, instruction in these subjects has often been overlooked in the quest to better understand and improve leaning in English/language arts and mathematics.As we demonstrate in this paper; science and social studies help students attain skills, information, and dispositions that are important for success in school and everyday life.Furthermore, these subjects offer opportunities for students to learn and apply literacy and mathematics skills, engage in authentic problem solving and inquiry, and experience success in the general education classroom.We begin by discussing the nature of learning in science and social studies as well as the interaction of learners with the curriculum.We then review instructional practices for improving the performance of students with disabilities in each of these subject areas. SCIENCE AND SOCIAL STUDIES FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIESOver the years, content area learning, including science and social studies, has received less emphasis in special education literature than basic instruction in the form of literacy and early math skills (Mastropieri et al., in press).Nevertheless, with the increased emphases on inclusion, accountability, and high stakes testing, content area instruction has acquired renewed importance (Lenz, Deshler, & Kissam, 2004).Beyond the obvious advantages to school success, enhanced understanding of human society and the physical universe can be expected to improve the quality of the lives of students with disabilities.In this article, we discuss research in science and social studies education for students with disabilities.Although there are many commonalities in these two bodies of literature, each addresses specific challenges as researchers have attempted to adapt instructional methods and curriculum materials to the characteristics of learners with special needs.Therefore, we first discuss each area separately and then draw conclusions regarding commonalities in science and social studies education at the end of the article.

Although evidence-based practices are considered critical to student success, a research-to-practice gap exists. This qualitative study examined practicing special education teachers' perceptions of their use of evidence-based practices. Special education teachers were interviewed and their classroom practices examined. Major themes emerged and findings revealed that (a) teachers believe they are using evidence-based practices, (b) teachers' awareness of research varies, and (c) teachers' personalization of research varies by awareness level. Awareness levels of credible evidence-based practices ranged from Aware, Partially Aware, and Unaware. Sources of evidence varied greatly from university coursework, research articles, co-workers' ideas, and self-generated ideas. Personalization of evidence-based practices consisted of teachers adapting and modifying practices to meet their own needs, rather than relying on fidelity of treatment measures. Implications for the special education classroom are discussed.

Expressive writing is important for school and life success, but remains challenging for many students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Emerging evidence reveals promise for teaching students with learning and behavioral issues to improve written expression with self-regulated strategy development instruction. In that research, students are taught to criterion performance (e.g., demonstrating mastery performance for each lesson) for instructional periods sometimes as long as 50 days (see Mastropieri et al., 2009). What is unknown, however, is given the more limited time constraints within a school setting, whether students with emotional disabilities, many with comorbidity, can successfully improve within a school's allocated time for teaching persuasive essays. The current study used a waitlist comparison condition and randomly assigned 32 eighth graders to either an immediate intervention or a waitlist delayed intervention condition during which an organizational and planning strategy for writing persuasive essays was taught. Findings revealed students were able to successfully learn and apply the strategy within a reduced time period as evidenced by statistically significant higher quality essays that contained more essay elements, words, sentences, and transition words. Student interviews revealed positive attitudes toward instruction and strategy use. Two months following posttesting, surprise maintenance measures were administered that yielded equivocal results suggesting periodic review sessions may be appropriate. Implications for the classroom practice are discussed.

Students with high-incidence disabilities frequently encounter difficulties with content area learning in areas such as science and social studies that are as significant as their challenges with reading and writing. Textbook- or content-based science learning involves high levels of content coverage, with very substantial amounts of vocabulary learning, and factual learning. Strategies to enhance expository text comprehension, such as summarization strategies, have been effectively implemented with students with learning disabilities studying science text. Marino et al., Coyne, and Dunn delivered a science-learning game focused on astronomy with simplified reading levels to students who were poor readers and students with severe reading difficulties. A number of investigations have attempted to enhance the organizational structure of social studies content. Summarization techniques, peer mediation, computer-assisted instruction, graphic organizers, alternative forms of texts and strategy instruction all helped students with disabilities to better comprehend social studies text.

In the past decade, the amount of instructional research on writing for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) has increased dramatically. Researchers find that students with EBD greatly improve their writing skills when they are systematically taught to write using metacognitive strategies with embedded self-regulation strategies. Researchers also have demonstrated that, in many cases, the intensity and duration of instruction required for these students to be successful is significantly longer and more intense that what is typically provided in schools. This manuscript summarizes major findings and provides direction for future researchers and practice.

High Interest–Low Vocabulary Thomas E. Scruggs, Thomas E. Scruggs Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this authorMargo A. Mastropieri, Margo A. Mastropieri Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this author Thomas E. Scruggs, Thomas E. Scruggs Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this authorMargo A. Mastropieri, Margo A. Mastropieri Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 07 February 2014 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118660584.ese1127 Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Encyclopedia of Special Education: A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and Other Exceptional IndividualsBrowse other articles of this reference work:BROWSE A-Z RelatedInformation

Twelve seventh- and eighth-grade students with emotional disturbance participated in a multiple probe, multiple baseline design two-phase intervention study to improve persuasive writing skills. The first phase after baseline taught students to plan and write persuasive essays including counterarguments. In the second phase, students were taught to plan and write fluently in 10 min. Students were assessed on their essay writing, the Woodcock–Johnson Fluency subtest, writing probes, and were interviewed post instruction. Findings revealed that all students mastered the components of effective persuasive essay writing, included counterarguments, and improved from baseline to postinstruction and postfluency phases in length and essay quality. Although students’ performance decreased slightly on surprise maintenance and generalization measures, results remained substantially higher than baseline. Strategy reports revealed all students enjoyed using and seeing the benefits of instruction. Findings are discussed for future research and practice for students with emotional disturbance.

Reversals in Reading and Writing Thomas E. Scruggs, Thomas E. Scruggs Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this authorMargo A. Mastropieri, Margo A. Mastropieri Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this author Thomas E. Scruggs, Thomas E. Scruggs Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this authorMargo A. Mastropieri, Margo A. Mastropieri Purdue University, West Lafayette, IndianaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 07 February 2014 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118660584.ese2070 Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Encyclopedia of Special Education: A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and Other Exceptional IndividualsBrowse other articles of this reference work:BROWSE A-Z RelatedInformation

Twenty-five years ago, we proposed the use of the PND (percentage of nonoverlapping data) statistic for quantitative synthesis (or meta-analysis) of single-subject research. This procedure was controversial from its beginning, with criticism divided between those maintaining that no quantitative method should be used to summarize single-subject research and those suggesting that other methods may be preferable. Since that time, more than 40 research summaries have been published using the PND statistic or its variants, and a smaller number have been published using other methods. We argue that the PND method has proven to be very useful over time for this purpose, though other methods have also contributed. These procedures to date have led to more systematic, objective summaries of single-subject research. We discuss implications of present knowledge for future applications of research synthesis.

The field of learning disabilities has been greatly influenced by both legal and policy decisions throughout its relatively short history. This chapter presents an overview of the historical analysis of learning disabilities and inclusion to provide a context for the present. An analysis of the studies conducted examining effects of inclusive interventions with students with learning disabilities is provided. Finally, predictions for the future of learning disabilities and inclusion are made based on the historical analysis and literature reviewed. Implications for educators, policy, and practice are made.

The Common Core Science Standards represent a new effort to increase science learning for all students. These standards include a focus on English and language arts aspects of science learning, and three dimensions of science standards, including practices of science, crosscutting concepts of science, and disciplinary core ideas in the various subject areas. Many of these issues bring important implications for students with learning disabilities, which we discuss in turn. With appropriate supports and applications, students with learning disabilities can potentially benefit greatly from these new standards. However, the demands of these standards may require a higher level of support than those commonly available for many students with learning disabilities.

In this article, we review selected papers published over the past 50 years of Theory Into Practice on the topic of special education and the study of individual differences. Although the field has witnessed substantial development over this period of time, several issues continue to be revisited, including overidentification of students from different racial, cultural, linguistic, or economic groups; and the degree to which students with disabilities should be included in general education classrooms. After describing how knowledge and practice has evolved over the past 5 decades, we discuss what the future is likely to bring to the field of individual differences and learning challenges.

The field of learning disabilities has been greatly influenced by both legal and policy decisions throughout its relatively short history. This chapter presents an overview of the historical analysis of learning disabilities and inclusion to provide a context for the present. An analysis of the studies conducted examining effects of inclusive interventions with students with learning disabilities is provided. Finally, predictions for the future of learning disabilities and inclusion are made based on the historical analysis and literature reviewed. Implications for educators, policy, and practice are made.

Ten inclusive middle school social studies classes, including 133 general education students, and 24 students with mild disabilities (21 with learning disabilities and 3 with emotional disabilities), were assigned at random to a traditional instruction condition, or an experimental condition involving classwide peer tutoring with specialized materials and parent training. After 18 weeks of instruction, posttest data revealed that students in the experimental condition gained significantly more than students in the traditional instruction condition. These effects were observed on content included in the tutoring intervention, as well as on related content that was taught but not included in the tutoring intervention. Results are discussed within the context of recent research on inclusive secondary content area instruction.