The SNARC effect indicates that numbers are mapped from left to right as in a mental number line. Accumulating evidence suggests that it could be attributed both to the magnitude or to the order of numbers, but the role of these two aspects has not yet been disambiguated since the two are tightly correlated. This study investigated the influence of order and magnitude in the SNARC effect using playing cards as stimuli. While most people organize cards in ascending order (AO), according to the Western reading-writing direction, a minority of people arrange them in descending order (DO). In this regard DO people should spontaneously associate low magnitude cards (e.g., 2) to the right, and high magnitude cards (e.g., 6) to the left. Therefore, in DO individuals, cards’ order would elicit a spatial mapping opposite to the canonical mapping of quantities (i.e., mental number line). In Experiment 1, DO participants performed magnitude classification on simple numerals and on playing cards, showing a regular SNARC effect when classifying numbers and no significant effect when classifying cards. Conversely, in Experiment 2, AO participants showed a regular SNARC effect when classifying both numbers and cards. In Experiment 3, a separate group of DO participants was recruited and tested online to replicate Experiment 1 and clarify the occurrence of spatial associations in card classification. Results indicated that DO participants showed regular SNARC effects both in number and card classification, suggesting that magnitude played a key role overruling the order of cards. This is apparently in contradiction with the view that specific experiences with ordered stimuli should determine the direction of an association.

The Spatial-Numerical Association effects describe the spatial relationship between number magnitude and response side, with small numbers usually associated with left sided responses and large numbers with right sided responses. Typically, these effects are demonstrated using response time differences in simple key press tasks, where participants are required to process the magnitude (magnitude classification task) or parity (parity judgement task) of a number. The present study investigated whether similar spatial biases (left/right) also occur for decisions that involve more complex movements, namely walking. Using a free response task, presented in a virtual reality environment, participants were shown a number from 1 to 9, that was presented directly in front of them. At the beginning of each trial participants were required to process either the number's magnitude (Experiment 1) or parity (Experiment 2). They were then asked to walk freely in any direction towards a semi-circular target area, while continuing to process information in working memory. The results showed a higher frequency of leftward walking decisions for smaller numbers and rightward walking decisions for larger numbers in both experiments, as well as compatible deviations of walking trajectory. These findings are consistent with previous literature on SNAs. This study highlights that in a free response task both spatial decisions and spontaneous movements are influenced by number magnitude, both when magnitude is task-relevant and when it is task-irrelevant.

When asked to produce random numbers individuals generate more small numbers than large ones, a phenomenon known as “Small Number Bias” (SNB; Loetscher Brugger, 2007). This bias has been associated with a spatial preference known as “pseudoneglect,” where attention is biased towards the left side of the mental number line during numerical processing (Loetscher Brugger, 2009). Another potential explanation for SNB is the higher frequency of use of small compared to large numbers in daily life (Dehaene Mehler, 1992). This study aims to determine which of these two explanations better accounts for SNB. Participants were asked to generate random numbers from 1 to 12 while viewing either a regular or an inverted clockface. On a regular clockface smaller numbers are on the right, whereas on an inverted clockface they are on the left. Both theories predict SNB for the inverted clockface. However, for the regular clockface, frequency of use would predict SNB, while pseudoneglect would predict a bias towards larger numbers. Results showed SNB in the inverted clockface condition, but no bias in the regular clockface condition. These findings suggest that SNB arises when pseudoneglect and frequency of use align but is absent when they conflict. Overall, the results indicate that both pseudoneglect and frequency of use contribute to SNB in some degrees.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of auditory stimulation with different frequency variations (increasing, decreasing, and constant) on performance, physiological parameters and perceived exertion in the shuttle run test. Twenty-four healthy sports science students participated in this experimental study and performed the shuttle run test under four different conditions: a) standard (as baseline); b) auditory stimulation with increasing frequency; c) auditory stimulation with decreasing frequency; and d) auditory stimulation with constant frequency. The results showed that maximal oxygen consumption in the decreasing-frequency condition was significantly higher than in any other condition and performance in the increasing-frequency condition was higher than that in the constant and standard conditions. The results also showed that in the initial and intermediate phases of the test, heart rate and perceived exertion were lower in both the increasing? and decreasing? frequency conditions than in the constant frequency and standard conditions. The results of the present study suggest that the use of auditory stimulation with decreasing frequency and increasing frequency can improve performance in endurance tasks. Future studies should better understand the different effects of these two types of stimulation and investigate whether they lead to long-term improvements.

Recent evidence suggested the existence of a spatial associations for music tempo with faster left-hand responses to relatively slow tempos and faster right-hand responses to relatively fast tempos. We refer to a study that systematically explored these spatial associations across different tempo ranges, revealed a clear effect only in the fast tempo range (DOI 10.3758/s13414-019-01945-8). The present study further investigated whether a spatial association exists across different tempo ranges (i.e., "full'', "slow"or "fast"tempo range). In particular, the present study was conducted aiming (1) to test the spatial associations for tempo in the full tempo range (Experiment 1) and (2) to further investigate the occurrence of this spatial associations in the slow and fast tempo ranges (Experiment 2). Experiment 1 revealed a spatial association for tempo occurs in the full tempo range (40-200 bpm). Experiment 2 confirmed this association in the fast tempo range (133-201 bpm) but showed contradictory results in the slow tempo range (40-104 bpm). This suggests that a spatial association is plausible in the slow tempo range, although further research is needed to clarify this phenomenon.

In order to frame excessive smartphone use as an addiction, it is important to understand whether this behavior determines abstinence symptoms and which damaging effect it has on emotions and cognition. However, an appropriate tool to assess the presence of smartphone abstinence symptoms is still lacking. In the present study, we propose a scale that is specifically developed to assess the psychological state deriving from smartphone abstinence: The Abstinence from Smartphone Scale (ABSS-10). The aim of this work is to validate ABSS-10 and to investigate its relevance in the context of smartphone addiction. Two studies were conducted to explore ABSS-10 psychometric properties, focusing on discriminant validity, and its relationship with smartphone dependence and emotional attachment. In Study 1, university students were administered the ABSS-10 two times during a two and a half-hour long smartphone restriction period. In Study 2, the scale was administered three times during a five-hour long smartphone restriction period. General state anxiety and smartphone dependence scales were also administered. The findings reveal that ABSS-10 effectively differentiates smartphone abstinence symptoms from general state anxiety and dependence. Moreover, results show that the scale detects changes in abstinence symptoms scores during a five-hour restriction period. The scale’s utility in both research and practical settings is discussed, highlighting its potential contributions to understanding the psychological dynamics of smartphone use and abstinence. The present work suggests that ABSS-10 is a robust tool for research on the psychological effects of smartphone usage.

Starting approximately from the beginning of the new millennium, a series of studies highlighted that auditory information deriving from biological motion can significantly influence the behavioral, cognitive and neurophysiological processes involved in the perception and execution of complex movements. In particular, it was observed that an appropriate use of sounds deriving from one’s own movement promotes improvements in the movement execution itself. Two main approaches can be used, namely the sonification one or the ecological sound one; the former is based on the conversion of physiological and/or physical movement data into sound, while the latter is based on the use of auditory recordings of movement sounds as models. In the present article, some of the main applications of both approaches—especially the latter—to the domains of sport and motor rehabilitation are reviewed, with the aim of addressing two questions: Is it possible to consider rhythm as a Gestalt of human movement? If so, is it possible to build up cognitive strategies to improve/standardize movement performance from this Gestalt? As with most topics in science, a definitive answer is not possible, yet the evidence leads us to lean toward a positive answer to both questions.

The Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect consists in faster left-/right-key responses to small/large numbers. (Bächtold et al., Neuropsychologia 36:731–735, 1998) reported the reversal of this effect after eliciting the context of a clockface—where small numbers are represented on the right and large numbers on the left. The present study investigates how the salience of a particular spatial-numerical context, which reflects the level of activation of the context in working memory, can alter Spatial Numerical Associations (SNAs). Four experiments presented the clockface as context and gradually increased its salience using different tasks. In the first two experiments (low salience), the context was presented at the beginning of the experiment and its retrieval was not required to perform the tasks (i.e., random number generation in Experiment 1, magnitude classification and parity judgement in Experiment 2). Results revealed regular left-to-right SNAs, unaffected by the context. In Experiment 3 (medium salience), participants performed magnitude classification and parity judgement (primary task), and a Go/No-go (secondary task) which required the retrieval of the context. Neither the SNARC effect nor a reversed-SNARC emerged, suggesting that performance was affected by the context. Finally, in Experiment 4 (high salience), the primary task required participants to classify numbers based on their position on the clockface. Results revealed a reversed SNARC, as in (Bächtold et al., Neuropsychologia 36:731–735, 1998). In conclusion, SNARC is disrupted when the context is retrieved in a secondary task, but its reversal is observed only when the context is relevant for the primary task.

The Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect is evidence of an association between number magnitude and response position, with faster left-key responses to small numbers and faster right-key responses to large numbers. Similarly, recent studies revealed a SNARC-like effect for tempo, defined as the speed of an auditory sequence, with faster left-key responses to slow tempo and faster right-key responses to fast tempo. In order to address some methodological issues of previous studies, in the present study we designed an experiment to investigate the occurrence of a SNARC-like effect for tempo, employing a novel procedure in which only two auditory beats in sequence with a very short interstimulus interval were used. In the "temporal speed" condition, participants were required to judge the temporal speed (slow or fast) of the sequence. In the "interval duration" condition, participants were required to judge the duration of the interval between the two beats (short or long). The results revealed a consistent SNARC-like effect in both conditions, with faster left-hand responses to slow tempo and faster right-hand responses to fast tempo. Interestingly, the consistency of the results across the two conditions indicates that the direction of the SNARC-like effect was influenced by temporal speed even when participants were explicitly required to focus on interval duration. Overall, the current study extends previous findings by employing a new paradigm that addresses potential confounding factors and strengthens evidence for the SNARC-like effect for tempo.

The home advantage and the subconscious referee bias regularly occur in professional sports, particularly in association football. The matches played behind closed doors in spring and summer 2020 highlighted that the crowd support is one of the main factors contributing to both phenomena in domestic leagues. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the same applies also to national teams matches, given the different impact of the other factors determining the home advantage in such matches. To this purpose, the 2018-19 and the 2020-21 editions of the UEFA Nations League - 133 matches each - were analysed, the former played in front of spectators while the latter with no or limited attendance. In particular, we examined a set of indicators of home advantage (match outcome, points, goals scored, ball possession, total shots, shots on goal, corner kicks) and of referee bias (fouls, yellow cards, red cards, penalty kicks, extra time), controlling for the FIFA World Ranking points and the number of time zones crossed. Comparing home and away teams on these parameters within each edition, we observed the occurrence of both phenomena in 2018-19, as well as their absence in 2020-21. Moreover, the comparison between the two editions revealed a significant reduction of both phenomena. The results indicate that spectators have a decisive role in contributing to both the home advantage and the referee bias in national teams matches.

Visual hallucinations are prevalent, potentially disabling symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease. Multiple impairments in bottom-up sensory processing and top-down perceptual modulation are implicated in the pathophysiology of these phenomena. In healthy individuals, visual illusions are elicited by illusory figures through parametric manipulations of geometrical configurations, contrast, color, or spatial relationships between stimuli. These illusory percepts provide insight on the physiologic processes subserving conscious and unconscious perception. In this exploratory, cross-sectional, controlled study, perceptual performance on illusory figures was assessed on 11 PD patients with hallucinations, 10 non-hallucinating PD patients, and 10 age-matched healthy individuals. In order to characterize potential neural substrates of perceptual performances, patients’ brain metabolic patterns on FDG PET were also analyzed. Illusions relying on attentional modulation and global perception were attenuated in PD patients without hallucinations. This pattern was no longer recognizable in hallucinating patients. Conversely, illusory effects normally counteracted by figure to background segregation and overlapping figures recognition were enhanced in PD patients with hallucinations. FDG PET findings further suggest that perceptual differences between PD patients might be linked to abnormal top-down perceptual modulation.

Aims: The present study aims to investigate the occurrence of the serial position effect in the recall of items verbally presented in three different contexts. Background: The serial position effect has been studied with both verbal ( e.g ., words) and visuospatial ( e.g ., locations) stimuli but not with verbal-spatial stimuli ( i.e ., spatial description of an environment). In particular, a spatial description of an environment has both spatial information and a meaningful context. Objective: The objective of the present study is to determine whether the use of different contexts (namely, a classic word list, a spatial description of a room, and a narrative without spatial information) can alter the serial position effect. Methods: Depending on the condition, participants were exposed to a) a list of objects, b) a spatial description of a room containing the same objects; c) a narrative presenting the same objects in lack of spatial information. After this learning phase, participants performed a recognition task. Results: The recognition task revealed different accuracy distributions in the three conditions. In particular, in the spatial description condition, the accuracy distribution did not change across the item position. Conclusion: This result is in line with previous studies with visuospatial stimuli. Thus, it seems that spatial descriptions are a particular kind of verbal stimuli, which are encoded similarly to visuospatial stimuli. Overall, these outcomes support the idea that spatial descriptions elicit a spatial representation, which enhances item retention and eliminates the serial position effect.

Both symbolic (digits) and non-symbolic (dots) numerals are spatially coded, with relatively small numbers being responded faster with a left key and large numbers being responded faster with a right key (spatial-numerical association of response codes [SNARC]). The idea of format independent SNARC seems to support the existence of a common system for symbolic and non-symbolic numerical representations, although evidence in the field is still mixed. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether symbolic and non-symbolic numerals interact in the SNARC effect when both information is simultaneously displayed. To do so, participants were presented with dice-like patterns, with digits being used instead of dots. In two separate magnitude classification tasks, participants had to respond either to the number of digits presented on the screen or to their numerical size. In the non-symbolic task, they had to judge whether the digits on the screen were more or less than three, irrespective of the numerical value of the digits. In the symbolic task, participants had to judge whether the digits on the screen were numerically smaller or larger than three, irrespective of the number of digits being present. The results show a consistent SNARC effect in the symbolic task and no effect in the non-symbolic one. Furthermore, congruency between symbolic and non-symbolic numerals did not modulate the response patterns, thus supporting the idea of independent representations and questioning some propositions of current theoretical accounts.